For the survey, 5,200 interviews were carried out in all autonomous communities, with questions being asked about scientific knowledge and opinion on science and alternative therapies.

Two researchers from the Autonomous University of Madrid have now published an analysis of these data in Health Communication magazine in order to collect the factors that determine trust in these pseudo-therapies, complemented by qualitative interviews.

One of the main conclusions of the study is that “trust in alternative therapies is not incompatible with a knowledge of and interest in science,” as Josep Lobera, a co-author of the study, tells SINC. To reach this conclusion, the answers of respondents who were in favour of pseudo-therapies were cross-referenced with those expressing trust in science and scientific knowledge. The authors discovered that in many cases these two factors coincided.

“There is no contradiction among the general public between a strong belief in science and a lot of trust in homeopathy,” explains Lobera. “We can observe that, contrary to what happens with superstitious beliefs such as horoscopes, most people who trust homeopathy or acupuncture don't see it as different from conventional medicine.”

According to sociologists, this shows a confusion among the general public about what has and does not have scientific validation, as well as a lack of knowledge of “what is meant by something not having any.” 

'Farmacia de la Estrella' in Buenos Aires. / Estrella Herrera

Medicinal appearance

Based on these results, the researchers propose that this confusion may be due to its scientific appearance. “They are sold in pharmacies in boxes that look like medicines, with leaflets, posology, etc. This, together with a moderate scientific culture among the Spanish general public, is one of the main factors that make people trust them,” states the researcher.

These data contradict the most common interpretations of trust in alternative therapies, which are believed to be based on anti-science attitudes.

According to Lobera, “among the general public, the use of homeopathy is not based on a rejection of science. This may be the case with a minority that generates an alternative construction to scientific knowledge, but the study shows that this is not so with the general Spanish population.”

The survey also breaks down the data by gender, age, educational and economic level, which made it possible to confirm that users of homeopathy and acupuncture usually have higher education. “According to the data, university studies protect you from trust in superstitions, but not from trust in pseudo-therapies,” he explains.

Users, more specifically, tend to be of women, which the researchers believe is due to the “caring role traditionally associated with them in society,” and of a medium-high socio-economic level.

In addition, the model confirms what had already been taken into account in other works regarding the influence of conspiracy theories against pharmaceutical companies. “Many people who rely on alternative therapies have a discourse of distrust in major drug companies. They believe there is a concealment of positive results,” says Lobera.

“What’s interesting,” he continues, “is that homeopathy producers are also major pharma corporations.”

Because of all this, the researchers believe that the solution to this confusion lies in more scientific information and culture. “It’s important to carry out campaigns that bring up the fact that there are certain products being sold in pharmacies that haven’t undergone a scientific validation process, as there’s still a part the population that don’t know this and are unaware of the importance of these validation processes,” concludes Lobera.

Reference: 

Lobera, J.; Rogero-Garc’a, J. (2020). "Scientific Appearance andHomeopathy. Determinants of Trust in complementary and alternative medicine". Health Communication. 

Some of these elements are already part of our daily lives: virtual assistants, video calls, intelligent locks, biometric control, giant advertising screens, social polarisation, video surveillance...

However, flying cars, ultrafast hair dryers, implantable memories, voice-controlled photo enlargers, space colonies and, ostensibly, undifferentiated human androids have not materialised. And while the climate in Los Angeles has worsened, the ecological crisis is not manifested in the film's torrential rains, but in a rampant drought.

Half right

Flying cars, ultrafast hair dryers, implantable memories, space colonies and near-human androids have not materialised

On the other hand, one should point out those developments that were not anticipated: drones, mobile telephony, laptops, the decline of the nuclear industry, the internet...

In short: Blade Runner was only partially right. And one obvious reason is that it was developed in too close a time horizon (some of the pending technologies will need a longer time to become a reality).

It is not the only plot set in the imminent future for which forecasts were not met. The same happened with the deadly pandemic predicted for 1996 in 12 Monkeys (Terry Gilliam, USA, 1995); or with the atomic holocaust dated 1964 in On the Beach (Stanley Kramer, USA, 1959); or with the nuclear war waged in 1966 in The Time Machine (George Pal, USA, 1960).

Refuting celluloid prophecies, those apocalyptic scenarios did not materialize. And, although there is still time left for 2029, the year in which Terminator (James Cameron, USA, 1984) is initially set, it seems very unlikely that in that period of time machines will exterminate humanity as its script foresees.

The key to this reckless handling of chronologies is purely commercial. The closer the scenario in time, the greater the pull on its audiences, or so goes the reasoning of producers.  If this ensures success at the box office, little do they mind being given the lie to for years to come.

Extrapolating does not work

Science fiction is incapable of guessing the turns in the trajectory of a technology, which is why it failed to imagine the personal computer

Dates aside, the truth is that science fiction has rarely been right, if we take its thousands of failed predictions into account. And both successes and failures follow the same predictive pattern: the extrapolation of emerging trends and technologies. Simply put, what the authors do is look at phenomena and findings that can be observed in the present and glimpse their future development.

Jules Verne proceeded in this way when he was inspired by the submersible designed by Robert Fulton in 1800 to imagine the Nautilus of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1871). And the same procedure applies to the incipient astronautics of the films that anticipated the 1969 moon landing in Destination Moon (Irving Pichel, USA, 1950), for example.

But extrapolation is precisely the Achilles’ heel of science fiction. By assuming that a trend will unfailingly follow its current direction, the genre becomes highly vulnerable to the unexpected. Assuming that space exploration would continue at full speed made 2001: A Space Odyssey (Stanley Kubrick, USA, 1969) believe that at the beginning of the 21st century there would be space tourism and moon bases.

Social myopia is striking: its authors found it much easier to imagine cyberspace than the emancipation of women.

Extrapolation will always leave out the unexpected, a serious limitation when it comes to anticipating the course of history, which advances with surprising leaps. The inability to guess the turns in the trajectory of a technology means that science fiction did not imagine the personal computer and instead populated the future with huge electronic brains.

A separate paragraph should be devoted to the genre’s social myopia. Although it may sometimes be right in the technological field, it fails miserably in terms of the evolution of customs. The omnipresent cigarette smoke in Blade Runner does not fit in with the ban on tobacco that prevails today.

Nor is it usually right on the economic front: the major companies visible on Ridley Scott's tape, Pan Am, Atari, RCA or Bell Phones, have either gone bankrupt or been overshadowed.

Its political vision fares no better. One need only see how the advance of liberal democracy disproved the totalitarian forecasts of the novel 1984. Not to mention gender relations: its authors found it much easier to imagine cyberspace than the emancipation of women. See how Blade Runner repeats the stereotypes of the dangerous blonde and the femme fatale, and the cliché of the hero who defeats the villains and gets the pretty girl.

A museum of tomorrow's history

Rather than serving as a crystal ball, science fiction fulfils other functions more effectively and with greater relevance. The first, of a retrospective nature, is to show us how the future was conceived at a certain time, which makes it a museum of the history of tomorrow.

In this sense, Blade Runner tells us about the gloomy expectations at the beginning of the 1980s: corporate dictatorship, omnipresent police surveillance, deteriorating living conditions, social inequality and the commodification of science, a vision that is barely qualified by a desire for reconciliation with technology, as embodied in replicants that are more human than the human characters.

Rather than serving as a crystal ball, science fiction speaks to our expectations about the future and promotes social debates

The second function of this futures factory, the most decisive socially, is to promote debates about the possible horizons in a given situation, instigating the public to take a stand for or against it. This is exemplified by the television film The Day After (Nicholas Meyer, USA, 1983): by showing the horrific consequences of a possible nuclear bombing in Kansas, it upset American public opinion against the warmongering of the Reagan Administration.

Therefore, let us not ask science fiction for accuracy in its scientific prognoses. On the other hand, if anything has been proven over the centuries, it is that the future is extremely unpredictable. Moreover, given the catastrophic tone of most of its premonitions, we find it more sensible to celebrate its mistakes than to lament them.

The most we can hope for - and this is no small thing - is that his works vividly, intelligently and entertainingly capture the eventual derivations of crucial issues of the present, and in this respect Blade Runner more than fulfils this task.

In the book format, uniformity is even more pronounced: only informative works by one sole essayist get to be published (the graphic novel about science is a pending subject). The only novelty is provided by those bloggers skilled in such matters that, with the usual online style, mix information, interpretation and opinion with disparate results.

This excessively uniform panorama highlights the originality of a book like Science without Fiction, coordinated by the science journalist Jesús Méndez. In the prologue, he traces the origin of the work to the moment he became aware that there was no non-fiction literature in Spain with science as its main theme.

Until now, there has not been a non-fiction literature in Spain that has science as its main theme, except for this book

With the intention of making up for this, he brought together four long-time colleagues and a prestigious novelist. The five texts that make up an unusual volume in our editorial and journalistic environment were the result of this common effort.

The compilation is headed by a piece by the coordinator, in which he refers to his meetings and conversations in Alicante with Francisco Mojica, the microbiologist whose research paved the way for the CRISPR genetic editing technique.

Jesús Méndez reconstructs the history of invention, critically reviews the patent war waged by the scientists who fine-tuned the CRISPR methodology, weighs Mojica's chances of winning the Nobel Prize, and concludes with an assessment of the amazing potential of genetic publishing. All this is recounted with a skilful alternation of short and long sentences, as opposed to the overuse of long and subordinate sentences in the usual journalistic writing.

Pere Estupinyà, a communicator trained in audio-visual dissemination, reconstructs Pedro Duque’s flight on the Discovery space shuttle. The choice of character could not be timelier, as he is the current Minister of Science, Innovation and Universities. Removing himself from the heroic pedestal, Duque recalls his trip of 1998 in detail and, despite Estupinyà's effort to bring drama to the experience, shows how routinized the astronaut's trade has become.

Javier Salas, member of the Materia team, focuses on the cases of Mario Rodríguez and Rosa Pulido, who died from undergoing pseudo-therapies instead of following the mandatory oncological treatment. These two cases affect him very closely, since the coverage he gave them had the effect of opening a national debate on the harmful effects of alternative therapies. Combining the “making of” accounts of the articles he published on the subject with the analysis of the pseudoscience boom -patent in the use of the fraudulent Power Balance bracelet by the very former Minister of Health, Leyre Pajín – Salas’ committed journalism conveys his indignation over those deaths and the tangle of circumstances that made them possible.

The only glitch lies in his classification as pseudo-sciences of phenomena of a very different nature (folk medicine, homeopathy, scientific errors, climate denialism, etc.), which detracts from the explanatory power of the category.

It would be desirable for the path opened by this collective work to be expanded on by other authors and for the media to be opened to other narrative models

He is followed by Sergio Fanjul, a graduate in astrophysics who combines poetry, scientific information and cultural journalism. His mission: to bridge the gap between basic research in physics at the beginning of the 20th century and the computing horizons of the 21st century. Lying somewhere between scientific and humanistic culture, his pleasant narration, seasoned with notes on the passage of the local history of Silicon Valley and the personality clashes between the brains of the computer revolution in the 50s and 60s, he manages to show how quantum permeates our lives.

Novelist Belén Gopegui closes the volume with the fictitious interview of a professor in artificial intelligence with a computer researcher turned hacker. In a remote village in Palencia, the two Spanish experts meet to clarify the meaning of her disruptive actions. Filling the dialogue with well-inserted references to specialists, the narrator contrasts the man’s rigid way of thinking with the woman’s conceptual fluidity.

The character of the hacker who disturbs computer systems for political purposes leads to a critical examination of the ethical and social implications of the digital algorithm, data mining, the unbridled empiricism of its gurus and the dehumanized conception of science and technology at the service of power.

None of the topics discussed is novel, the novelty lies in its presentation. At its best, the lively writing, which aims towards style, the clear and succinct explanations of the scientific-technical nuts and bolts and the strong authorial presence of the first four texts justify the compiler's choice to create non-fiction literature. Gopegui's story, for its part, demonstrates the efficacy of pure and simple fiction in raising scientific debates of great significance.

It would be desirable for the path opened by this collective work to be expanded on by other authors, and, likewise, for the media to be open to narrative models that, like these, depart from conventional moulds.

Technical data sheet

Title: Science without Fiction

Authors: Jesús Méndez, Pere Estupinyà, Javier Salas, Sergio Fanjul and Belén Gopegui

Genre: Nonfiction

Published by: Debate

Place and date of publication: Madrid, 2019

Pages: 272

Superior shows the yin and yang of the study of human races. On the one hand, Saini speaks with prestigious researchers such as Svante Pääbo, David Reich, Robert Plomin and Jonathan Marks. On the other hand, she delves into the dark side of academia, where an inbred circle publishes ideas from the previous century in non-impact, suspiciously funded journals.

We met Saini in a cafeteria in central London, just a few metres from the British Museum, with which Superior begins. The journalist fears that race science is taking advantage of the resurgence of nationalism and the far right to return from the darkest corners of the twentieth century. Two days before the interview, the author had erased her profiles on social networks, frustrated by the racist harassment she had been suffering on Twitter. Precisely this week the writer tweeted again from her account, grateful for the reports of harassment of thousands of users.

“Racist and neo-Nazi pages spoke of my book. I complained to Twitter about the most atrocious insults, but in most cases they didn’t do anything.”

Have you suffered more harassment than when you published your former book, Inferior?

Yes, partly because I was less well known then. Also, in Superior I identify the names of neo-Nazis, who communicate with each other and were ready to attack. They have a very strong political vision. Sexism appears in all societies, but racism has a different political tone.

Why did you leave Twitter?

In recent weeks, weeks racist and neo-Nazi sites talked about my book. I reported the most outrageous insults to Twitter, but in most cases they did nothing. There were also sexist comments, both are always connected. I left because we’ve got to give these companies the message that if they’re going to sit down and allow harassment, we will leave them.

You mean Quillette? I say this because in addition to talking about your book, it has received recent criticism for pointing the finger at journalists and putting them in danger.

I'm talking about darker websites, although today it's all mixed up. It's very difficult to know where the boundaries are anymore, look who comments. They are the same people! People who talk about me on 4chan are the same people who talk about me on Quillette.

You speak of the “return of race science,” along the same lines as an article in The Guardian warning of its “resurrection”. Had racial science really gone?

Its popularity comes and goes, according to the politics of the moment. Now, with the rise of the far-right and nationalisms, these people have become powerful and are trying to protect their vision of the world. Some are very well educated and try to fit their racism with what they know. That means twisting and manipulating the facts.

Their intellectual arrogance makes them think they understand things that mainstream science misses. They try to present their arguments with science to reinforce the idea that we are different and that their rhetoric works. That's why it now has a popularity it may not have had before, although it’s true that it has never left.

There were people who misunderstood Inferior asserting that you denied the differences between men and women. Are you afraid something similar will happen to Superior?

It’s assumed that I’m some kind of race denier, that I say there’s no variation between humans. Of course there is! I’m not saying that at all, it’s a deliberate misinterpretation. What I’m proposing is that human variability doesn’t go well with our view of racial categories. This is not controversial, scientists say so every day. There are statistical variations between populations; not deep, but subtle and not very significant.

So, do races exist?

Race is a social construct, which means races exist. Just because something is cultural doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist. In fact, it has biological repercussions, as does gender, due to inequality. The life expectancy of African Americans is lower than average; it's not because of genetics, it’s because race has power in our society. That's why it’s being researched as a cultural entity. As a biological entity it has much less meaning than socioeconomic differences and diet.

I was surprised by the chapter on racial medicine. So it doesn’t work?

“To say that science is free of ideology is becoming increasingly less sustainable, the study of human behaviour was political from the beginning.”

It surprised me, too. There is a high rate of diabetes in India. It may be partly because of genetics, but mostly because wealthy people eat too much butter, salt and sugar, and associate living well with a sedentary life. So of course diabetes will appear! It’s fatalistic to think of these things in racial terms, but we do it because it’s easy.

There are already cases of people to whom science has said they do not belong to the race with which they have identified all their lives. Will we see more such cases as genetic tests become even more popular?

Yes, and as societies become more mixed. We already have problems placing ourselves in these ‘hard’ categories, which shows their arbitrariness. In America being black means something very different than in South Africa, Australia, the United Kingdom or India. They have a different meaning depending on where you are, they’ve always had it and always will. We have to accept that race is a social construct.

In Superior you link scientific racism with Trump and Brexit. Can science and ideology be separated?

To say that science is completely free of ideology is becoming less and less sustainable. This might apply to some disciplines like theoretical physics [laughs], but the study of human beings and their behaviour was political from the beginning. To suggest otherwise is to deny that we have biases. Anyone who studies human differences and says “I'm free from bias, I'm completely objective” is being self-deceitful. In fact, they do more harm, because unless they are aware of their prejudices, they will be unable to control them.

“Anyone who studies human differences and believes to be free from biases is being self-deceitful.”

What responsibility has science had for the survival of scientific racism?

Your view of the world depends on the lenses through which you look at it. Humans live in very different, changeable ways. Observing who we are only captures a snapshot of that moment and place, of that group of people and their culture. The study of human nature tries to see who we are if we remove all the layers. What I argue is that it is impossible to remove them all, because culture shapes us from the second we are born. You can’t separate one thing from the rest.

You say at the end of the book that, when it comes to races, “history is the thing that can provide the answers; science can’t help you here”. Can’t it?

We can’t assume that race has a biological meaning because we know it isn’t true. There’s no doubt about that, science is clear on this issue. One of the arguments I put forward in Superior is that scientists need to connect with the social sciences to get a fuller picture of who we are. We cannot study human beings in a vacuum. We can [do research on races] if we are humble, recognize our biases, and read social science research.

It is impossible to deal with this subject without talking about genes and intelligence. If there are population differences in issues such as lactose tolerance, why should intelligence be different?

The differences between groups are statistical; there are no ‘race genes’. Also, if we talk about altitude tolerance, it doesn’t mean that the rest of the characteristics of that group are also different. Finally, these variations have to do with survival, such as the ability to hold one’s breath. Intelligence depends on thousands of genes. Why would they be more concentrated in certain groups? There is no genetic or evolutionary evidence to suggest this. No matter what society you live in, being intelligent is beneficial.

“Whether for reasons of gender, race or class, when certain genetic arguments are used, it is always to defend power.”

There is a rather dark underworld outside the world of academia that argues, for example, that human beings are losing intelligence because of the poor and immigrants. Is it all connected?

For hundreds of years they have argued that deep down we are different. The interesting thing is that this debate has not always been with races, but with classes. At the beginning of the history of eugenics, it was feared that the poor were congenitally incapable and mentally weak. If they failed to improve over generations, it was because they passed on their weakness to their children. This applies to racial debates, with the idea that there are groups that don’t meet the genetic standards of the rest and should not enter the country and have kids.

That's why at the end of the book I come to the conclusion that this is all about power. It’s about a group of people who have power telling others that they don’t deserve it, that they should be controlled and that they have less of a right to live. Whether for reasons of gender, race or class, when these genetic arguments are used, it is always to defend power.

Power and also the need to create the myth of a nation. You relate colonialism to the origin of the modern concept of race. Do we still have this mentality in countries like the United Kingdom and Spain?

The paternalistic rhetoric of the benevolent civilization that cares for a weaker civilization is still seen here with the Brexit, as a result of how badly the history of the British Empire has been taught. Do we assume that the end of history has already been written and there will be no other winners in the future? Of course there will be, we’re already seeing it with countries like China and India.

The world order is changing and that causes insecurity by losing a control that we feel is naturally owed to us. And we assume this because the ideas of superiority and inferiority have permeated the subconscious. There may someday be museums in Singapore with European artefacts, like the British Museum. Arrogance makes empire builders think that their empire will last forever.

“Being impartial with racism is the same as being impartial with climate change deniers and Flat-Earthers. Why feed the idea that there are two opposite and equivalent sides?”

In that sense, you also criticize the ancestor tests. Will nationalisms increase their popularity?

There are already people who undergo these to reinforce their idea of who they are. In Israel they are being used to determine whether someone is Jewish or not; just imagine if that technology had existed in the 1930s. It seems very dark to me that everyone, not just the far right, has bought this idea that inappropriately biologises race and reinforces in our minds that there must be racial genes. Actually, the tests show who you may be vaguely related to, but they don’t find ‘European genes’ or ‘Asian genes’ because they don’t exist.

In ‘Superior’ you point to Enlightenment, a period that many claim today is the origin of the problem of scientific racism. Why?

Enlightenment reinforced political ideas that were already there and hardened them with science. It was the same with colonialism and the genocides we saw in the 19th century. Would they have happened without Western science? Probably, but science gave strength to these ideas and legitimacy to these racial constructs, which made them appear more rigid than they were before.

I was amused to read that 70 years ago there was already talk of how censorship and political correctness were damaging science because of “irrational science denialists”. Are those who repeat that nowadays as novel as they think?

They like to present themselves as such. What fascinated me was to see how intelligent they had been in manipulating speech using euphemisms, speaking of freedom of speech, academic freedom and diversity of opinion, to find accommodation in mainstream discourse. Today, universities and media support them without realizing that they are the direct intellectual heirs of Nazi eugenics. They have changed the way they speak, but they say the same things. We let them in and now there are politicians who use the same rhetoric of 70 years ago.

“There’s no conspiracy: if race science has trouble getting its work published, that’s because it’s not very good.”

It reminds me of the ‘debates’ between evolutionists and creationists, or between physicians and homeopaths. There is no middle ground between being and not being a racist!

I just did an interview on the BBC and, after telling about the racism I've experienced online, the interviewer said, “I'm going to put my impartiality aside and say that this is terrible.” I thought: “How can you be impartial with racism?” It's the same as with the climate change deniers and the Flat-Earthers. Why do we keep feeding this idea that there are two opposing sides and equivalents? They were never any. There are only facts that are under scrutiny and should always be. The power we are fighting here is extreme right-wing ideology, not science. If we cannot recognize that, then we are making it easy for them.

Is it that worrying? I have the impression that it’s an inbred circle, that it publishes in its journals without any real impact and get no respect from the rest of the academic world.

There is a rigid circle, but there are university professors and politicians on its edges. The veil is being lifted from them, many people have done research and they’re finding it harder to keep up appearances. It’s shocking that there are serious magazines that allow those people to be on their editorial committees. For instance, Gerhard Meisenberg and Richard Lynn were on the editorial board of Intelligence and I contacted the editor of the magazine, who defended him on grounds of academic freedom. After I wrote an article in The Guardian, Meisenberg had been removed by the end of 2018. But the problem has not been solved, others have done nothing.

Is it true that, as one of the researchers states in Superior, “we look to science as a rationalisation of political ideas”?

Science has a power in society that nothing else has. It is viewed as objective, rational and legitimate. If it looks like a scientific fact, then it cannot be racist. This is what racists say on the Internet: “facts don't care about your feelings”, ignoring that facts are not on their side. They sell it as if they were being repressed by a conspiracy that tries to silence them, while they defend good science and are like Galileo or Copernicus.

“Cultural stereotypes have given meaning to labels and once we've put one on someone, we feel like we already know something about that person.”

It’s puzzling that someone buys this argument and what most impresses me is that many people do. I don’t have a problem with white men; I have a problem with those who say that science is on their side, when it isn’t. There’s no conspiracy: if race science has problems getting its work published, that’s because it's not very good.

In the end, as they say, “facts don't care about your feelings.”

No, but we can’t use that on them, can we? [laughs].

It seems that human beings need to think in categories like races or nations. What can we do?

I try to treat each person as an individual, because more than 95% of the differences between people are individual. It's difficult, I also have many biases and stereotypes, but I can’t think of any other way to act. Cultural stereotypes have given meaning to labels: once we have put one on somebody, we feel that we already know something about that person. Instead of seeing each person as you think they are, we must give them a chance to show who they really are.

The report reveals that 28 % of LGTBIQA+ people in the world of physical sciences in the United Kingdom have at some point in their scientific careers considered giving up their jobs on account of the discriminatory environment they lived in because of their affective or sexual condition. The percentage rises to 50% for trans people.

Discrimination exists and many choose to adopt a normality that does not seem conflictive

The fact that almost everyone has felt hostility makes us indignant and should move us to action, as commented, in a seminar on diverse and inclusive science organized by the Society of Spanish Scientists in the United Kingdom (CERU/SRUK) last June 6, by the astrophysicist and disseminator Alfredo Carpineti, founder of the Pride in STEM association and the promoter, since 2018,  of the celebration, on July 5, of the LGTBIQA+ pride day in the disciplines of science, technology, mathematics and engineering: #LGBTSTEMDay.

However, if we were to ask at any research centre, laboratory, technology company or university whether there is any discrimination against affective-sexual diversity, everyone would say no, that quite the opposite, that being a lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender or of a non-conforming or creative gender has nothing to do with performing scientific or technological work, and that no person is excluded or minimised for these reasons.

What then is the matter? For those of us who live in our non-cishisheterosexual reality, however, the reality is obvious: discrimination does exist and many choose to adopt a normality that does not seem conflictive. If you are lucky, this will make it easier for you to have a more or less relaxed career in the world of science. As long as, of course, your job does not make you travel to countries where LGTBIQA+ people are discriminated against, where you will have to consider going back into the closet, forget about your partner or become that slightly nerdish but non-queer stereotyped scientist that looks good in any place, no matter how LGBT-phobic.

Several studies, such as Queer in STEM, initiated in 2013, which surveyed scientific staff in various areas, asking them about their personal situation and their perception in the research or work centre, show that the most gender-equal scientific areas are usually more inclusive also in other aspects such as sexual diversity. More masculinized areas, on the other hand, are less inclusive.

In the 2016 American Physics Society report, more than 40% agreed with the following: "Employees are expected not to act too gay.”

The report of the American Physics Society on LGBT Climate in Physics, published in 2016, showed how social norms in the United States are actually discriminatory. More than 40% of people surveyed agreed with the following statement: “Employees are expected not to act too gay.” The aforementioned UK report updates the data in a European context. There are no similar studies in Spain as yet, but we can make a reasonable adaptation. An even more negative one, in fact, because the LGTBIQA+ reality in Spanish science is almost completely invisible.

Spanish Diverse Science

In Spain, in a personal analysis I made in 2018 consulting the 75 scientific societies that make up the Confederation of Scientific Societies of Spain (COSCE), I was able to verify that none of them has constituted a study group, nor undertaken specific actions, in reference to the LGTBIQA+ community. There is no research that analyses whether the people in question experience situations of inequality, nor has an inclusive campaign been carried out in these years.

In other countries, however, it can be seen that all scientific societies have been working on these issues for years. In the United States and the United Kingdom, specific actions are being organised: Pride months, meetings of scientists and LGTBIQA+ scientists, and the preparation of documents such as the LGBT+ Inclusivity in Physics and Astronomy Guide  prepared in 2018 by the American Astronomical Society.

However, the situation has changed this spring, when we formed an association that, like others around the world, bears the hallmark of diversity: PRISMA, Association for Affective-Sexual and Gender Diversity in Science, Technology and Innovation, presented on Friday, June 28 in Barcelona and on July 4 in Madrid, PRISMA not only wants to increase the visibility of LGTBIQA+ people in scientific fields, but also to provide new science models, which make it more inclusive, with broad perspectives and with a clear vocation of activism for science and against pseudo-sciences.

In a few years in which science has understood that achieving a more egalitarian society is also its struggle, PRISMA proposes a more diverse science and encourages to propose touchstones

We are alarmed at the recent news about the support of various bodies for conversion therapies, a practice dismissed by all scientific authorities as unscientific and dangerous, with sometimes devastating consequences for the families involved; or phenomena such as the transphobic bus of fundamentalist associations, which invoked science to confuse messages about sex and gender, which are particularly sensitive in a sector, that of transsexuality, which has been pathologised until a little more than a year ago by the WHO.

In a few years in which science has understood that achieving a more egalitarian society is also its struggle (ours), PRISMA proposes a more diverse science and encourages to propose touchstones, something that is still fundamental, as commented a few days ago by the mathematician Marina Logares in an interview with SINC. The manifesto that marks the official presentation of PRISMA specifies this need, as well as the need to initiate and promote research that allows for the creation of more inclusive and diverse spaces for study and work.

When the environment is inclusive and diverse, a higher quality science is produced. This was shown in a joint publication of the journals Nature and Scientific American in September 2014 in the case of ethnic diversity, and has been proven in other areas: the impact of science that establishes wide and diverse networks is measured in various investigations. And in a way, even if the science was just as good or bad, the journey would also have been worthwhile.

It is something that we are now beginning to understand as self-evident in the case of men and women in science. Going a little further to accept affective diversities seems like a logical step.

Javier Armentia Fructuoso (Vitoria-Gasteiz, 1962) is an astrophysicist and disseminator of Spanish science, a member of the PRISMA association.

Since 1993 he has been the director of the Pamplona Planetarium.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), palliative care aims to improve the quality of life of those patients (and their families) who face the problems of a life-threatening disease.

Attention is paid not only to end-of-life physical issues, but also to psychological, social and spiritual matters. In Spain, less than 50% of people who could benefit from these therapies have access to them, despite the fact that strategies exist to integrate them into our health systems.

In Spain, less than 50% of people who could benefit from these therapies have access to them, despite the fact that strategies exist to integrate them into our health systems

In order to understand how the leading Spanish newspapers portray palliative care and contribute to its social representation, the team of researchers has analyzed 262 articles published between 2009 and 2014 by El País, El Mundo, ABC and La Vanguardia.

This project has established that palliative care is substantially present in the Spanish press, although the most common coverage focuses on socio-political debates - for example, in the wake of new laws related to the end of life or requests for euthanasia - rather than on the benefits for patients or their developmental situation.

As for the social actors involved in news stories in which palliative care is mentioned, the team has identified the following, in order of presence: politicians, health professionals, civil society organizations, individuals and editorial teams.

With regard to politicians, the instrumental use they make of palliative care to frame political strategies in line with their respective parties’ ideology, proposals and actions is obvious.

“Moreover, the news items in which this group appears often deal with some debate that has captured the attention of the media at a particular time,” explains the main author of the study, José Miguel Carrasco.

What about health professionals?

One also finds, to a lesser extent, the viewpoints of palliative care practitioners, who appear as key sources of objective information on technical issues, particularly in controversial cases and in debates on end-of-life legislation.

“Their messages tend to be didactic and aimed at promoting such care,” adds Carrasco, a former ATLANTES researcher and founding member of Aplica Coop, the social research cooperative on health and well-being.

In relation to content that includes civil society groups, there are speeches and messages related to pro-life organizations, euthanasia associations, patient groups and the Catholic Church. They all defend their respective ideological or moral positions.

Most media coverage associates palliative care with the end of life and aspects related to fear and pain, rather than deal with what they can contribute when it comes to addressing them

“We have found few texts with testimonies of patients or relatives attended to by palliative care services,” says Carrasco. “Besides, those identified mainly give stories in which the protagonists tell about how they have benefitted from these services.”

The voice of experience

Finally, the study identifies how palliative care is also reflected in opinion columns and editorials, which present the ideological position of the newspaper in question regarding current debates, such as euthanasia.

According to the study, most media coverage associates palliative care with the end of life and aspects related to fear and pain, rather than deal with what they can contribute when it comes to addressing them.

“When the different agents with experience in palliative care - professionals, patients and relatives - talk about them, they give clearer information about the nature of this care and its benefits for patients and caregivers. In this way, they contribute to building a more positive image of this practice,” concludes Carlos Centeno, the chief researcher of ATLANTES.

The researchers maintain that giving greater press coverage to the messages of the groups that are close to these cares can be a way to promote their expansion and integration in the health services.

This article follows the same route as another one published in 2017 in the same magazine. This reviewed 627 articles, 57% of them from printed newspapers and the rest from digital media. In the first category, only 2% of articles and news reports were drawn from the health section. Ninety per cent of the texts analyzed contained socio-political messages.

35% of the articles quoted palliative professionals while 32% quoted politicians. Most of the messages analyzed failed to describe professional practice or the benefit for patients. In fact, researchers suggested that the media should devote more space in their coverage to these issues.

Bibliographical reference:

José Miguel Carrasco, Beatriz Gómez-Baceiredo, Alejandro Navas, Marian Krawczyk, Miriam García, Carlos Centeno. ‘Social representation of palliative care in the Spanish printed media: A qualitative analysis’. PLOS ONE January 25, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211106

What is most striking about these sites is the way of burying the dead in large silos, along with their dogs and a few foxes. “We discovered that in some cases the dogs received a special kind of food. We believe this is linked to their function as working dogs. Besides, one of the foxes shows signs of having already been a domestic animal in those times,” Aurora Grandal-d'Anglade, co-author of a study on the relationship between humans and dogs through their diet published in the journal Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, has said to to Sinc.

By means of studying stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen, as well as archaeological, archaeobiological and anthropological studies, researchers have been able to compare the diets of buried animals with their owners´ diet. A total of 37 dogs, 19 domestic ungulates and 64 humans were analyzed. The results indicate that the dogs’ diet was similar to that of humans.

The isotopic study of the Minferri foxes shows a varied diet: in some cases it looks similar to that of the dogs at that site, and in another it looks more like that of a wild animal or one that had little contact with humans.

“The case of the Can Roqueta fox is very special, because it is an old animal, with a broken leg. The fracture is still in its healing process, and shows signs of having been immobilized (cured) by humans. The feeding of this animal is very unusual, as it is more akin to a puppy dog’s. We interpret it as a domestic animal that lived for a long time with humans,” explains Grandal.

Large dogs used for transporting loads

The study points out that, in some particular cases in Can Roqueta, there was a specific cereal-rich food preparation for larger dogs probably used for carrying loads, and for at least one of the foxes.

“These specimens also show signs of disorders in the spinal column linked to the transport of heavy objects. Humans were probably looking for a high-carbohydrate diet because the animals developed a more active job, which required immediate calorie expenditure. It may seem strange that dogs were basically fed with cereals, but this was already recommended by the first-century Hispano-Roman agronomist Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella , in his work De re rustica”, says Silvia Albizuri Canadell, co-author of the work and archaeozoologist at the University of Barcelona.

Other animals, such as cows, sheep or goats are noted for an herbivorous diet. Their function was probably to provide milk, meat or wool rather than serve as a work force. “The horse was not yet widespread in those societies, no traces of it can be found until later times,” adds the scientist.

In general, humans and dogs show somewhat higher isotopic signals than ungulates, which indicates a certain (not very high) consumption of animal protein, “not necessarily much meat; they could be, for example, derived from milk,” explains Grandal. Archaeological objects included sieves that served as ‘cheese making devices’.

Moreover, men seem to have included more meat than women in their diet. As for dogs, their diet may have been mainly from leftovers of what humans ate, mostly more similar to that of women and children. “That's why we thought they were more linked to these domestic environments,” says the researcher. There are many ethnographic parallels that indicate this relationship between women and dogs.

Enterramiento femenino de Minferri junto a una cabra y dos zorros. La mujer abraza al zorro hembra / Grup d'Investigació Prehistòrica, Universitat de Lleida

Feeding and treatment of foxes and dogs

The fundamental role of dogs during the Bronze Age, when livestock, along with agriculture, constituted the basis of the economy, was that of the surveillance and guidance of herds. They were also responsible for taking care of human settlements, given the risk posed by the frequent presence of dangerous animals such as wolves or bears.

“The characteristics of dogs include their great intelligence, easy trainability and, undoubtedly, their defensive behaviour. As if that were not enough, this animal was used until the nineteenth century AD in North America, Canada and Europe for light transport on its back and for dragging carts and sleds. It also functioned as a pack animal on the Peninsula during the Bronze Age,” Albizuri Canadell claims.

Some archaeological specimens from North America show bone disorders that stem from the pulling of ‘travois’. There are also accounts by the first colonizers of the use of dogs in these tasks by Indian populations until the nineteenth century AD, although they had not been identified in Europe until a few years ago.

“It was the Can Roqueta specimens under study that triggered the alarm about the use of this animal for light loads since antiquity, and they’re an exceptional case in Europe,” says Albizuri Canadell.

Similar pathologies have also been recently identified in the vertebrae of Siberian Palaeolithic dogs, leading one to think that one of the first tasks since their early domestication was the pulling of sleds and travois, in addition to hunting.

Its role as a transport animal in the first migrations and human movements through glacial Europe could have been fundamental and much more important than believed until recently.

Pincha sobre la imagen para verla a mayor tamaño. / J. A. Peñas

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The reason for animal offerings

Exceptional findings, such as those of tomb #88 and #405 of the Minferri site (Lleida), show that during the Bronze Age there were already well-differentiated funeral treatments in human communities.

“In the two structures mentioned above, the remains of three individuals were found together with animal offerings. In tomb #88 there was the body of an old man with the remains of a whole cow and the legs of up to seven goats. The remains of a young woman with the offering of a whole goat, two foxes and a bovine horn were also found,” states Ariadna Nieto Espinet, an archaeologist from the University of Lleida and also the co-author of the study.

Structure #405 uncovered the body of an individual, possibly a woman, accompanied by the whole bodies of two bovines and two dogs. “We still don't know why only a few people would have had the right or privilege to be buried with this type of offering, unlike what happens with the vast majority of burials,” the expert points out.

In Can Roqueta, clear differences have also been observed in the deposits of domestic animals within the tombs of adults, both men and women, which are even reflected in children's tombs. From this we can infer the existence of an inheritance of social status from birth.

“It is tempting to think that if we understand domestic animals as a very important part of the agro- pastoral agro-shepherding economy of the Bronze Age and of the belongings of some people in life, these could be an indicator of the wealth of the deceased individual or of his clan or family,” argues Nieto Espinet.

“It seems that species such as bovines and dogs, two of the most recurring animals in funeral offerings, are those that might have played a fundamental role in the economy and work as well as in the symbolic world, becoming elements of ostentation, prestige and protection,” she concludes.

References:

Aurora Grandal-d’Anglade, Silvia Albizuri, Ariadna Nieto, Tona Majó, Bibiana Agustí, Natalia Alonso, Ferran Antolín, Joan B. López, Andreu Moya, Alba Rodríguez y Antoni Palomo. “Dogs and foxes in Early-Middle Bronze Age funerary structures in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula: human control of canid diet at the sites of Can Roqueta (Barcelona) and Minferri (Lleida)” Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-019-00781-z

Now, researchers from Argentina's National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) and two Spanish institutions (the Spanish National Research Council and the University of Burgos) have analyzed the relationships between mobility and technology developed by those societies that originated in the far south of Patagonia.

It is by means of automatic classification algorithms that researchers have identified two technological ‘landscapes‘

The study, published in the Royal Society Open Science journal, is based on an extensive database of all available archaeological evidence of human presence in this region, from the time the first groups arrived in the early Holocene (12,000 years ago) until the end of the 19th century.

This was followed by the application of machine learning techniques, a statistical system that allows the computer to learn from many data (in this case, big data from characteristic technological elements of the sites) in order to carry out classifications and predictions.

“It is by means of automatic classification algorithms that we have identified two technological packages or ‘landscapes’: one that characterizes pedestrian hunter-gatherer groups (with their own stone and bone tools) and the other characterizing those that had nautical technology, such as canoes, harpoons and mollusc shells used to make beads,” explains Ivan Briz i Godino, an archaeologist of the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET) of Argentina and co-author of the work.

Selk'nam people, an example of a more pedestrian group, without nautical technology, although the marine resources were intensely exploited by those who lived near the coast. / Photo: C. W. Furlong (January 1908) courtesy of the End of the World Museum (Ushuaia, Argentina).

“In future excavations, when sets of technological elements such as those we have detected appear, we’ll be able to directly deduce the type of mobility of the group or the connections with other communities,” adds Briz.

Maps with the settlements of the two communities

The results of the study have also made it possible to obtain maps with the settlements of the two communities, and this, in turn, has made it possible to locate large regions in which they interacted and shared their technological knowledge. In the case of groups with nautical technology, it has been confirmed that they arrived at around the beginning of the Mid-Holocene (some 6,000 years ago) from the channels and islands of the South Pacific, moving along the coast of what is now Chile.

“Traditional archaeology identifies sites, societies and their possible contacts on the basis of specific elements selected by specialists (such as designs of weapon tips or decorative elements), but here we show that it is more interesting to analyse sets of technological elements as a whole, using artificial intelligence techniques that allow us to work with large data volumes and without subjective prejudices,” concludes Briz.

Remains of consumed fauna in a shell midden site on the Atlantic coast of Tierra del Fuego / Ivan Briz i Godino

Technological landscapes of nautical mobility (red circles, with some blues that are less well classified by the algorithm) and pedestrian mobility (orange and purple circles) in hunter-gatherer groups that lived in the extreme south of South America / Briz et al. 2018 / Royal Society Open Science

Atlantic Coast of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, Punta Torcida sector / Ivan Briz i Godino

References:

Ivan Briz i Godino, Virginia Ahedo, , Myrian Álvarez, Nélida Pal, Lucas Turnes, José Ignacio Santos, Débora Zurro, Jorge Caro y José Manuel Galán. “Hunter – gatherer mobility and technological landscapes in southernmost South America: a statistical learning approach”. Royal Society Open Science, octubre de 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180906

The relative weight of the services sector and the climatic conditions have gained importance as pull factors among natives during the crisis

In the 90s, it was the foreigners themselves who began to arrive in Spain, becoming one of the countries currently receiving the most migrants, despite the law passed in 2012 that restricted access to health services for undocumented immigrants –a measure only implemented by 18 provinces.

According to a study published in The Annals of Regional Science, the foreign and native populations present very different migratory patterns and models within the national territory. More specifically, the study analyzes interprovincial movements, not taking into account changes of residence within the same province.

This is confirmed by an analysis in which the main factors motivating such relocations have been compared: the job, the level of human capital, the price of housing, the weight of sectors with respect to GDP, climatic conditions and, finally, the geographical distance between provinces.

"Labour factors (salary and the probability of finding a job) play a more important role among the foreign than the native population", emphasizes María Gutiérrez, the lead author of the work and researcher at the University of Cantabria, on the basis of the data collected in the Survey of Residential Variations, provided by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE).

A before and an after the crisis

This research, conducted both for a pre-crisis period (spanning from 2004 to 2007) and for the period of the main ravages of the crisis (from 2008 to 2013), reveals, moreover, that there has been a significant change in the patterns of migration as a consequence of the outbreak of the crisis and, therefore, of the change in the economic cycle.

El sector servicios y las condiciones climáticas han ganado importancia como factores de atracción entre los nativos durante la crisis

According to the results of the work, the relative weight of the services sector and, to a lesser extent, the climatic conditions have gained importance as pull factors among natives during the crisis. "But the opposite happens among the foreign population," Gutiérrez highlights.

The study also reveals changes in the behaviour of natives and foreigners depending on how intense the differences in working conditions in each province are, and this occurs both before and after the outbreak of the crisis.

In fact, the research shows that, for migratory movements to occur, there must be notable differences in working conditions, especially in the case of natives. "If the differences are slight, this movement would not take place, and other factors, related to the quality of life, are those which come into play," the experts conclude.

Reference:

Gutiérrez-Portilla, M., Maza, A. & Hierro, M. (2018) “Foreigners versus natives in Spain: different migration patterns? Any changes in the aftermath of the crisis” The Annals of Regional Science 61(1): 139-159.

Juan López Doblas, researcher at the University of Granada (UGR), has published a study in Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas (Spanish Journal of Sociological Research) on the reasons that lead these people to live alone, instead of sharing the household with relatives of other generations.

"In the Western world, it’s been happening since the mid-twentieth century because that is when Social Security and pensions were established. In Spain, this arrived a bit late, as in other Mediterranean countries, because values of a more individualistic type have traditionally been more typical of Nordic countries”, says the scientist.

The study was based on interviews lasting more than one hour with various groups of people over 63. The regions of Asturias and Andalusia were chosen, because they have different rates of population aging and, additionally, the senior citizens living there differ substantially in essential aspects, such as pension amounts or educational level.

"What we’ve observed in the study is that, at present, older people have a preference for privacy and freedom, and that comes before being kept company," López Doblas points out.

All the discussion groups consisted of a majority of widowed persons, which reflects the numerical predominance within the population group under study.

Emotional attachment to one’s home and social isolation

One of the most important aspects for understanding the reasons for the decline of intergenerational coexistence in Spain lies in the household in question. According to the work, the elderly are aware that they cannot expect their families to come to live with them, so it is they who would have to move in with their families. And such a decision would most likely mean having to definitively quit the household they have been living in for decades, which is something that, as the study reveals, they refuse to do unless it is absolutely necessary.

According to the author, "they have a strong emotional attachment to their homes, even when living conditions aren’t the best. They regard moving house as an unnecessary personal sacrifice that would also, besides, isolate them from their social environment, where they can socialise with family, neighbours and friends."

Living alone despite low pensions

The study also significantly reflects the manner in which the participants in the discussion groups explain what their lives would be like if they chose to live with their families. "They understand that if they shared the household with relatives, they’d be a burden for them, which is something they want to avoid at all costs. They also reject this so as not to meddle in their private lives, or disturb their privacy. And they fear that daily cohabitation would eventually and inevitably generate discomfort, arguments and conflicts," he explains.

Regarding pensions, although they are usually low, especially for many widowed women, this does not prevent them from managing to be self-sufficient. It is something that they achieve through a thorough control of spending, which often entails austerity in the consumption of even basic goods and services.

"Widowed people are forced, for the first time in their lives, to handle roles and experiences that are initially very harsh, in addition to loneliness. Adaptation is very difficult. But after a while, they also value freedom. It is a balance between the risks and the positive aspects," concludes López Doblas.

References:

López Doblas, Juan (2018). “Formas de convivencia de las personas mayores”. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 161: 23-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.161.23

From 2007 to 2016 in Spain, 47,574 cyclists have been involved in some of these accidents, both minor and serious, and 656 have been killed

Proof of this is that from 2007 to 2016 in Spain, 47,574 cyclists have been involved in some of these accidents, both minor and serious, and 656 have been killed. More specifically, in 2016, of the 1,810 people who died in traffic accidents in Spain, 67 were cyclists. In addition, 7,371 were injured to a greater or lesser degree.

"Given the characteristics of the vehicle and the little use made of passive safety measures, cyclists are, along with pedestrians, the most vulnerable road users to serious injuries in the event of an accident," Sinc has been told by Sergio Alejandro Useche, a researcher at INTRAS, the Traffic Research and Road Safety Institute of the University of Valencia.

70.7% of accidents and 67.4% of injuries or deaths of victims happen in urban centres, compared to rural roads, where 29.3% of accidents and 32.6% of the victims have been recorded. 47.2% of serious injuries to cyclists occur on conventional urban roads.

In order to understand the increase in incidents with cyclists and be able to develop preventive policies, a study led by Useche has analyzed the relationship of roads´ and human factors with traffic accidents. The results, published in Sustainability magazine, show that, in the crashes between motorized vehicles and bicycles, both factors are present. These data could be used to explain and prevent road accidents.

Road safety education is lacking

The researchers conducted an online survey in which they interviewed 1,064 cyclists (38.8% women and 61.2% men) of about 33 years of age on average and from twenty countries in Europe, South America and North America. According to the expert, the increase in accidents with cyclists is due to "the massive use of bicycles, which is currently still in a state of disorder, poorly controlled and regulated, and rarely linked to the education and road training of its users," the researcher has pointed out.

The increase in accidents with cyclists is due to "the massive use of bicycles, which is currently still in a state of disorder, poorly controlled and regulated”

Scientists emphasize the need to act on the infrastructures to reduce problematic interactions with other users, which occur when cyclists must share roadways with users of motor vehicles or pedestrians; simplify circulation on “friendlier” roads; and strengthen the culture of bicycle use and respect for it in all users.

Researchers have also observed that traffic codes are noted for "a worrying lack of regulations to rule the use of bicycles whenever they share mobility with other types of vehicles".

Regarding individual or human factors, the study gives special importance to risk behaviour, of which there are two main types. The first of these is that of so-called errors or unintentional failures by drivers. "These can be reduced with adequate road safety training, such as is given, for example, to drivers of motor vehicles," Useche explains.

Another type of behaviour observed in accidents is linked to traffic infractions. Experts believe it is essential to strengthen road training for cyclists and drivers in order to avoid them. "This requires the support of the media, the institutions and the education system", say the authors, for whom this would improve public health and social coexistence between the different mobility systems.

Reference:

Useche, Sergio; Montoro, Luis; Alonso, Francisco; Oviedo-Trespalacios, Oscar. “Infrastructural and Human Factors Affecting Safety Outcomes of Cyclists” Sustainability 10(2): 299 DOI: 10.3390/su10020299 February 2018

Researchers from the Rey Juan Carlos University (URJC), the Universidad Complutense of Madrid and the University of Munich (Germany) have analyzed how in the Spanish communication companies the patterns of female labor inequality prevail: underrepresentation, barriers in the professional career and lower salaries. Their work, for which they conducted a survey of 390 journalists, is part of the study Worlds of journalism study.

"The exercise of journalism is very tough, very competitive, which together with the current precarious working conditions tilts the balance towards any other dedication that allows the conciliation of work and professional life", says Roberto De Miguel, of the URJC, co-author of the study published by the journal El Profesional de la Información to Sinc.

Women have more academic training and higher education levels in the practice of journalism. They also obtain lower wages

On the one hand, men occupy three-quarters of the positions of maximum managerial responsibility and two-thirds of the positions of decision-making on contents. However, women have more academic training and higher education levels in the practice of journalism. They also obtain lower wages.

A glimpse of hope can be found in the new digital information platforms that constitute the niche of the labor market where the strongest progress towards equality is observed. In these media, women occupy positions of greater editorial responsibility.

The largest gap is in print media

"When we talk about the gender gap we must start from the fact that there is parity in the number of practitioners, but that salary levels and proportionality in the ranks are especially adverse for women in the case of the print media. There is a perception of greater equality in the electronic media (radio, television and digital media)," explains De Miguel.

The work also explains some of the strategies of women in the journalistic career. Maximizing intellectual capital is the main way for journalists to reduce the gender gap. "Greater demands are put on women. Our data show that practically all of them have completed the studies that enable them to practice this profession. They also strive to achieve the highest degree of academic education (master courses or doctorate)," says the researcher.

According to the authors of the work, this eagerness for the 'fulfillment of the formative duty' obeys to a strategy of empowerment within the newsrooms: the greater their capacities, the more possibilities they have to maintain their jobs or be promoted. "The fact that men do not stand out academically is a clear indication that they have another type of competitive advantage," says De Miguel.

Among those who charge less than 1,000 Euros net per month, 85% are women

Precariousness in the segment of journalists with the highest university qualifications is focused on women. Among those who charge less than 1,000 Euros net per month, 85% are women.

73% of women receive a salary of less than 2,000 Euros per month regardless of the position they occupy, which does not distance them from their male peers (69%). What does make a difference is that the ratio of seniors exceeding 2,000 Euros a month is one woman for every two men.

"There is no empirical evidence of this, but the analysis of the data from our research suggests that there is a critical period, between 35 and 45 years, in which women journalists face the dilemma of 'being one more of the staff' or being mothers, which is hardly compatible with this profession," reflects Miguel.

Women journalists located at the top of the media ladder exceed, on average, that age group, which means that they do not carry family burdens. This has been detected in other professional areas, such politics: "The average age of the representatives is extremely high", says the expert.

In the opinion of researchers, women survive in the journalistic labor market due to their ability to adapt: "Women journalists are aware of their disadvantages to maintain or progress in the profession, which, together with their greater specialization and training, makes them more resolute when adopting innovations".

When you look separately at what happens in digital media, the gender gap narrows and there are more women in decision-making positions. This confirms a hypothesis about how women 'take over' niche information markets.

A long tradition of innovators in the media

Woman journalists open a gap in the information ecosystem by invading new genres, themes or styles that have not yet been colonized by men.

"In Spain we have many examples of this innovative desire: Emilia Pardo Bazán, Concepción Gimeno, Carmen de Burgos (Colombine), Isabel Oyarzábal and Carmen Eva Nelken (Magda Donato).All of them exercised a declared 'feminine' journalism in their time, due to their social themes, and they were introducing genres such as the chronicle and the interview, which constituted an innovation in nineteenth-century journalism. Both genders were later colonized by men," says De Miguel.

The so-called 'blog phenomenon', emerging at the beginning of the first decade of the 21st century, is another example of this pattern. "The creation of blogs is paradigmatic in the field of strategic innovations, because thanks to them, women have managed to 'seize' a space in which it is possible to report and express opinions with full autonomy, if not become directors, editors and reporters of their own micro-environment, without submitting to the opinion or authorization of male hierarchies at the time of publication. The phenomenon of influencers is another example of an empowerment strategy for expansion," he concludes.

References:

Roberto De-Miguel, Thomas Hanitzsch, Sonia Parratt, Rosa Berganza. "Mujeres periodistas en España: análisis de las características sociodemográficas y de la brecha de género". El Profesional de la Información, 2017.

(...) Here, in Britain, because so many parents reject, out of obstinacy, ignorance or fear, that their children are immunized, we still have one hundred thousand cases of measles each year. Of them more than 10,000 will have consequences of one kind or another. About twenty children will die.

In 2017 the cases of measles in Europe multiplied by four and caused 35 deaths

Vaccines protect today 86% of the world's population and, according to WHO data, prevent the deaths of two million people a year, especially children. Thanks to vaccines we have managed to eradicate a disease as terrible as smallpox, and many others have disappeared from our lives.

But the appeal of Roald Dahl is still valid because the rejection of vaccines has not stopped growing, especially in the richest countries. In Europe alone, measles cases multiplied by four in 2017, causing 35 deaths. Diphtheria and pertussis cause again victims and if this trend is not reversed, we will see in our schools the ravages of polio.

It is difficult to imagine the pain of a person who loses a child for denying the protection provided by vaccines. But beyond the feelings of compassion and anger, it is convenient to reflect on the reasons for their obstinacy, ignorance and fear. In particular, we must analyze the role played by the activists of the anti-vaccines movement, which is increasingly organized.

The British writer Roald Dahl lost is daughter Olivia in 1962 h when she was only seven years old, victim of measles, for which there was no vaccine.

The power of social debate

What mechanisms does society have to defend itself against the danger the anti-vaccines movement poses? Can we demand any responsibility for the consequences of their actions? What is the relationship between the growing rejection of vaccines and the proliferation of therapies that have never been shown to be effective and that are sometimes dispensed under the protection of the official associations of doctors and pharmacists themselves?

In A Coruña we have lived these days a couple of situations that exemplify the terms in which this debate is taking place. On the one hand, a hotel in the city decided to attend the protests of many citizens and canceled a conference by Josep Pàmies, an agricultural entrepreneur who, among other things, encourages the substitution of chemotherapy treatments with a combination of medicinal plants and bleach.

What happened in A Coruña shows that the public debate is an effective tool to reduce the social space to those who instigate the rejection of vaccines

A few days later the City Council announced during a press conference the sponsorship of BioCultura, a fair that includes 75 editions between Seville, Valencia, Bilbao, Barcelona and Madrid, and which in November last year occupied two pavilions of the IFEMA premises with more than 800 exhibitors and 74,500 visitors.

Shortly after the presentation, the City Council began to receive complaints because, along with composting workshops, energy cooperatives or sustainable school canteens, the fair scheduled several speeches given by renowned activists of the anti-vaccines movement. Among them, one titled "Presentation of the new ecological infectious theory". The following day the organization of the fair accepted the municipal demand to withdraw these talks, although others about the dangers of WIFI networks, the benefits of sacred geometry (sic) or quantum medicine (sic) remained in the program.

These cases show that both private companies and public administrations are sensitive to criticism and know how to react to protests in social networks and the media. This demonstrates that the public debate continues to be an effective tool to reduce the social space to those who instigate rejection of vaccines and at the same time helps to inform the public of the benefits of vaccination.

Dangerous frauds mixed with environmentalism

Ir más allá y pretender que la apología antivacunas se convierta en un delito contra la salud pública parece más efectivo, pero esta opción no está exenta de riesgos. En primer lugar porque consolidaría el discurso victimista y conspiranoico que tan convincente le resulta a una parte de la población. Pero, sobre todo, porque supondría añadir un nuevo límite al derecho a la libertad de expresión.

No en vano, estos días hemos asistido con preocupación a la condena de cárcel para un músico por el contenido de sus canciones, mientras que responsables del IFEMA –que nada parecen objetar a las conferencias antivacunas– forzaban la retirada de una obra de arte de carácter político que se iba a exponer en ARCO.

Going further and pretending that anti-vaccination apology becomes a crime against public health seems more effective, but this option is not free of risks. In the first place, because it would consolidate the victim mentality and conspiracy discourse that is so convincing to a part of the population. But above all, because it would mean adding a new limit to the right to freedom of expression.

Not in vain, these days we have attended with concern to the prison sentence for a musician for the content of his songs, while the heads of IFEMA (the Madrid Fair Institute) - who does not seem to object to anti-vaccine conferences - forced the withdrawal of a work of art with politician character which was going to be exhibited at ARCO.

At eco fairs, products made with criteria of environmental responsibility and pseudo-therapies converge. / Biocultura

At the same time, the programming of these events within the framework of events whose objective is "to promote organic farming and healthy food as a basis for a more just and respectful society" invites us to analyze the rejection of vaccines within the framework of a broader context. The interest of broad sectors of society for the consumption of more "natural" and less polluting products has given rise to a thriving economic sector that enjoys official recognition and is regulated by specific norms.

Science is far from possessing the monopoly of reason, but we need social consensus to translate its findings into norms that we can all meet

It is precisely in this environment ("eco" fairs, "organic" product stores, etc.) where foods produced with criteria of environmental responsibility converge without apparent contradiction with pseudo-therapies and miraculous products that have never proven effective. As expected, we will also find here the highest rates of rejection of transgenic crops, which, despite exceeding all food safety requirements, continue to experience strong opposition in Europe.

It would be a serious mistake to attribute the whole conglomerate complex of personal options to a simple question of ignorance or anti-scientific feelings, pretending that science can solve all problems and that its authority should be sufficient to solve all the dilemmas and contradictions that arise of the application of any technology.

Science is far from possessing the monopoly of reason, and even where the evidence provided by the scientific method is unquestionable (vaccines protect against diseases, tobacco causes cancer and this is not cured with bleach), we need social consensus to translate these findings into standards that we can all meet.

Marcos Pérez Maldonado is director of the Museos Científicos Coruñeses. He is an expert in scientific museography and didactics of science in non-formal environments; science in children's education; production of dissemination, interactive projects, exhibitions and planetarium programs.

The study, published in Social Indicators Research, does not mention the provinces most prone to corruption so as not to generate controversy, explains one of the authors, Ivan Pastor, to Sinc, who recalls that, in any case, "a greater propensity or high probability does not imply corruption will actually happen."

The model confirms that the increase in the number of years in the government of the same political party increases the chances of corruption

The data indicate that the real estate tax (Impuesto de Bienes Inmuebles), the exaggerated increase in the price of housing, the opening of bank branches and the creation of new companies are some of the variables that seem to induce public corruption, and when they are added together in a region, it should be taken into account to carry out a more rigorous control of the public accounts.

"In addition, as might be expected, our model confirms that the increase in the number of years in the government of the same political party increases the chances of corruption, regardless of whether or not the party governs with majority,” says Pastor.

"Anyway, fortunately - he adds -, for the next years this alert system predicts less indications of corruption in our country. This is mainly due to the greater public pressure on this issue and to the fact that the economic situation has worsened significantly during the crisis".

Database with real cases

To carry out the study, the authors have relied on all cases of corruption that appeared in Spain between 2000 and 2012, such as the Mercasevilla case (in which the managers of this public company of the Seville City Council were charged) and the Baltar case (in which the president of the Diputación de Ourense was sentenced for more than a hundred contracts "that did not complied with the legal requirements").

The collection and analysis of all this information has been done with neural networks, which show the most predictive factors of corruption. "The use of this AI technique is novel, as well as that of a database of real cases, since until now more or less subjective indexes of perception of corruption were used, scorings assigned to each country by agencies such as Transparency International, based on surveys of businessmen and national analysts", highlights Pastor.

The authors hope that this study will contribute to better direct efforts to end corruption, focusing the efforts on those areas with the greatest propensity to appear, as well as continuing to move forward to apply their model internationally.

References:

Félix J. López-Iturriaga e Iván Pastor Sanz. “Predicting Public Corruption with Neural Networks: An Analysis of Spanish Provinces”. Social Indicators Research, November 2017.

25% of attacks identified as violence against women were perpetrated by faculty. Despite these figures, 91% of cases of attacks at Spanish universities go unreported.

As Patricia Melgar from the University of Girona, co-author of the study published in the journal “Violence Against Women”, tells SINC: “The law of silence on this topic at universities in Spain has been more rigid than in other social contexts. From the beginning of this research project, a we were fiercely persecuted, with anonymous accusations and even death threats.”

The researcher explains that, “until now, the few victims who had dared to try to report a case had been destroyed one by one both professionally and psychologically.”

The study is based on data collected from a sample of 1,083 students at universities in Andalusia, Castile and León, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia and the Basque Country. Participants were selected using a multi-stage sampling technique. An important aspect arising from the analysis of the data is that the large majority of university students do not identify or acknowledge violent situations.

The results show that, in most cases acknowledged by the students interviewed, the victim was a female student (92%). The perpetrators were mostly male (84%) and students (65%). 25% of people who witnessed violence against women stated that the perpetrator was a faculty member. Only in 16% of cases of violence was the perpetrator unknown to the victim.

Control and humiliation are also forms of violence

The research participants saw male violence as that which involves a physical or sexual attack against women, but not other behaviour that involves control, domination and humiliation.

For example, the study points out that 23% of students did not consider violence cases in which women’s partners prevented them from talking to other people. Another fact: 26% thought that unpleasant comments on women’s physical appearance has nothing to do with violence.

This difficulty in identifying gender violence was obvious at all various stages of the study. When students were asked whether they had suffered or knew about cases of this kind, only 13% responded affirmatively. However, when they were provided with a list of different situations which included physical or psychological attacks, non-consensual kisses or contact, stalking, or comments with humiliating sexual connotations, this percentage of affirmative responses rose to 62%.

Analysis of the results by gender also showed that women were more often able to identify situations of gender violence than men.

Many students believed that women who suffer gender violence have low educational levels, elderly, financially dependent on their husbands, “when in reality, it affects women of any level of education, age or work status,” Melgar adds.

How do we put a stop to the problem?

“Research and prevention of gender-based violence in our country has frequently ignored evidence from science and international feminism. This is why serious mistakes have been made such as focusing only on couples and ex-couples, ignoring the fact that it also happens in sporadic relations,” the researcher continues.

For the experts, this mistake has not only led to a lack of acknowledgement as gender-based violence of murders committed, for example, when leaving a nightclub, “but it has also focused many prevention programs around attacking romantic relationships and ideal love rather than warning against all kinds of relations – stable or sporadic – with violent men.”

According to the scientists, despite the important progress that has already been made, there is still very little active solidarity with victims. “This isolation is driven by severe second-order sexual harassment, such as attacks and slander against those of us who support victims,” Melgar reports.

91% of victims do not report violence

In terms of victims’ reactions to situations of gender violence, 91% did not report the situation, but of these students, 66% did tell someone. One of the likely reasons is that victims of gender violence do not identify as such.

In the survey, 92% of students stated that they did not know whether there was a service for victims at the university. However, 85% of students believed that universities should offer services to people who undergo any kind of gender violence.

Of those who did dare to report the situation at the university, 27% did not feel supported by the institution and 69% of those surveyed felt unsure as to whether victims would receive adequate support.

“Policies and actions developed by Spanish universities need to be grounded in two goals: intransigence regarding any kind of violence against women, and bystander intervention, support, and solidarity with the victims and with the people supporting the victims,” Melgar concludes

References:

Rosa Valls, Lídia Puigvert, Patricia Melgar y Carme Garcia-Yeste. “Breaking the Silence at Spanish Universities: Findings From the First Study of Violence Against Women on Campuses in Spain”, Violence Against Women 1–21 DOI: 10.1177/1077801215627511.

Three researchers at the University of Granada (UGR) have carried out a study to assess whether the physical attractiveness of the victim affects the social perceptive of sexual harassment. Furthermore, scientists have studied how the ideology of the observer influences how they identify such incidents.

They presented a hypothetical situation to 205 university students (19% male, 81% female). In this fictional scenario, Sergio was a worker at a company who was presented in two ways: physically attractive and not attractive. Sergio sexually harassed a work colleague, Laura, who, similarly, was either attractive or unattractive. Specifically, Sergio subjected Laura to gender-based harassment, which is one of the most subtle forms.

When the harasser was attractive, the participants tended to think he did it to assert his dominance, rather than for a sexual motive

After hearing the story of Sergio and Laura, the participants had to complete a questionnaire. Their answers were used to find out how they had perceived the harassment, who they attributed responsibility to for what happened, and what they thought the motivation of the harasser was. The questionnaire also revealed information on the ideological variables around sexism and the acceptance of the myths surrounding sexual harassment.

"When they were presented with an incident of sexual harassment against an attractive woman, the participants were more likely to perceive it as sexual harassment than when the victim was not attractive," Antonio Herrera, a UGR researcher and co-author of the study published in the ‘International Journal of Social Psychology’, tells SINC.

When the harasser was attractive, the participants tended to think he did it to assert his dominance, rather than for a sexual motive.

"The results of this study show how certain features or characteristics of people involved in a case of sexual harassment acquire such importance that they mask other significant variables in the decision-making process. They have consequences for the harasser, for the victim and for the social perceiver," adds the researcher.

The greater the acceptance of these myths around sexual harassment, the more responsibility is attributed to the victim

In cases where the harasser was not attractive but the victim was, the volunteers attributed more responsibility to him. This fits in with one of the great myths surrounding harassment: the belief that it is done to attractive people by those who are not.

Malevolent ends

The ideology of the observers also affected their perception. The greater the acceptance of these myths around sexual harassment, the more responsibility is attributed to the victim. In this case, these prejudices made them more likely to believe that sexual harassment could have been provoked by the woman for some kind of 'malevolent' end.

"This is especially important on a legal, police, work and social level, since it makes it essential to eliminate the preconceived ideas that surround this phenomenon and which are found in both men and women, as we have seen in this study," concludes the researcher.

Antonio Herrera, M. Carmen Herrera y Francisca Expósito “¿Es lo bello siempre tan bueno? Influencia del atractivo físico en la percepción social del acoso sexual”, Revista de Psicología Social / International Journal of Social Psychology, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02134748.2016.1143179

In the study, the paper’s main author, Gorka Moreno Márquez, presents the findings of two studies, one carried out before the crisis (2008) and the other in today’s context, comparing the two. The paper is published in the ‘European Journal of Social Work'.

“We are observing a rise in the number of homeless people as a consequence of the crisis. Although some of the group’s characteristics are stable, others have changed. Therefore, difficulties accessing the jobs market and the cuts to certain financial aid are causing increases to the duration of the process of integration into society”, the scientist told Sinc.

The research was carried out using data from two studies in the historical territory of Biscay. “Although some of these conclusions could owe to the context and the particularities of this geographical area, the majority can be extrapolated to the country as a whole and to the phenomenon of homelessness in general” adds Moreno Márquez.

The launch pad to integration, ever further away

Before the economic crisis, it was estimated that there were around 260 people in the historical territory of Biscay who spent their nights on the streets or at some service for homeless people.

To arrive at this figure, a register was first made of the homeless people who attended hostels, canteens or day centres. Around 220 people were registered through this activity. Another 30 or 40 people were added to this figure according to an estimate made by the street team.

“The vast majority of these are men: 91.5% compared to 8.5% who are women. At the European level, it should be highlighted that although they are still a minority, the number of women in this group is always rising,” said the researcher.

To take one example, in France in the late 90s, women made up 37% of homeless people aged under 25. The average age is 36; 30% are younger than 30, 31% are aged between 30 and 39 and people older than 40 make up 39%: a relatively young population.

In the second study period, carried out in 2012, the number of homeless people in Biscay was between 400 and 430. “This rise is largely due to relapses in the process of social insertion of people who had already been in this situation,” he states.

Immigrants are hit the hardest

The paper corroborates the theory that extreme situations have not as a result of the crisis extended to people who were previously integrated into society. The study’s authors attribute this to a social and family network, which is able to overcome the harshest conditions of social exclusion.

However, they state that there is an ever-rising number of foreign homeless people who suffer from individual problems. “These are particularly related to mental illness, and to a lesser extent to drug use,” the scientist stresses.

This fact is a break from the pattern of the period before the crisis, and appears to indicate that the recession is creating a niche in this group of people, particularly as a consequence of rising frustration with longer and more difficult social insertion processes.

“The process by which these insertion process are lengthening is being fed into by cuts to certain social aid such as income support, which used to reach some sectors of homeless people. Legal changes such as the requirement to have been registered as a resident for three years instead of one have made it more difficult to access aid; this especially affects the immigrant population” Moreno Márquez concludes.

References:

Gorka Moreno Márquez. “El impacto de la crisis sobre las personas sin hogar. rupturas y continuidades en un contexto de cambio. El caso de Bizkaia”. European Journal of Social Work

As part of this initiative, a team of sociologists from the University of Rovira i Virgili in Tarragona (Spain) have carried out a study on discriminatory expressions used by young people –ages ranging from 17 to 24 years old– on Facebook; they have reached the conclusion that this type of content varies depending on whether it is shared by males or females. The research findings have been published in the journal Comunicar.

There is a feminine way as well as a masculine way to behave on the Internet, according to the study

David Dueñas i Cid, a researcher at the Social and Business Research Laboratory (SBRlab) at the Catalan university and the main author of this study, explains to Sinc that the purpose of the study was to gather information regarding the types of discriminatory content created and spread by young people via social networks such as Facebook.

Rather than using big data techniques, very on fashion these days, the team chose a sociological approach, “since simple data extraction could lead to incorrect results,” said the researcher.

In order to conduct the study, the team designed a methodological strategy to detect discriminatory content on 493 Facebook profiles from the United Kingdom, Italy, Belgium, Romania and Spain –the participating countries in the I:CUD project– which allowed them to find 363 samples for their analysis.

“Taking into consideration the data protection and ethical principles that must regulate social research, we found volunteers in these five countries, in collaboration with institutions that have experience in fighting discrimination and inequality”, pointed out the sociologist.

These institutions include CEPS Projectes Socials (Barcelona), Fundatia PACT (Bucharest), Pour la Solidarité (Brussels), Collage-Arts (London), CIES (Rome) and SBRlab itself. “With these organisations –says Dueñas– we wanted to ensure that interest in and dedication to the project would go beyond the analysis and also include ethical and practical aspects”.

After informing the volunteers about the purpose of the study, the researchers accessed their Facebook profiles and reviewed the content that had been published during the last year. The comments or activity considered to be discriminatory were evaluated, analysed and categorised.

Discrimination intensity

Dueñas indicates that the team thoroughly analysed the elements of the discriminatory content that was detected in addition to the type of associated activity: "Creating content is not the same as reacting to it. The intensity of discrimination in the content was also evaluated".

As a result, they observed patterns between young men and young women that reveal that there is a feminine and a masculine way of behaving on the Internet and that there are different ways of expressing discrimination on social networks sites.

The study collected information regarding the types of discriminatory content created and spread by young people on Facebook. / Olmo Calvo

The study emphasises that young males tend to be more direct by posting and sharing messages with content that is more clearly discriminatory and mainly aimed at ethnic groups and cultural minorities.

On the other hand, females utilise indirect forms of discrimination such as agreeing with and spreading content posted by others by clicking the 'like' button; this strategy makes the element of discrimination less evident. The author notes that, for the most part, female attitudes are directed towards the sociocultural situation and physical appearances.

In the limit of political correctness

The study also highlights that young, less educated males share a greater amount of discriminatory content on Facebook whereas young university females share less.

The authors have additionally noticed that there are certain types of discrimination that can be more easily concealed, such as discrimination towards physical appearance, social class and homosexuality. Other types, such as discrimination towards ethnicity and religion, are classified as highly discriminatory content. Gender discrimination occupies a medium position.

Young males tend to be more direct by posting and sharing messages discriminatory conten; females utilise indirect forms

All of this means that discriminatory content regarding physical appearance or social class is easily spread over the Internet as it does not carry such a strong social stigma and stays in the limits or 'political correctness'.

The unconscious differences between these different discriminatory attitudes may give us clues that can help us understand how certain content is easily disseminated. Facebook enables some content to be tagged as inappropriate and deleted; according to the study, but if users are only detect traditional forms of discrimination, the rest can easily survive.

Dueñas stresses that although they are aware of the limits of their research, the data obtained in the study indicate that there is a link between the internal differences between the young men and women and their online behaviour; this research opens the way for other fields of study such as the differences between socialisation, language and use of power.

“The online world is a reflection of our offline world but with the difference that online activities can be recorded in a space that has become public or semi-public, a scenario that helps these activities to gain relevance, visibility and permanence. The way we are acting on the internet resembles how we act out in the real world, but on the internet our words are not blown with the wind,” says the researcher.

Referencia bibliográfica:

David Dueñas i Cid, Paloma Pontón, Ángel Belzunegui, Inma Pastor. "Discriminatory Expressions, the Young and Social Networks: The Effect of Gender". Comunicar nº 46 v.XXIV (2016)

“There is a strong relationship between the surname and the Y chromosome in Spain. The majority of men who share relatively unusual family names –those carried by less than 6,000 people in all of Spanish national territory– also tend to share an identical or very similar Y chromosome, thus demonstrating that these surname carriers descended from the same original bearers of those paternal surnames,” explains Conrado Martínez-Cadenas, a researcher from the Department of Medicine at Jaume I University in Castellón (Spain) and from the Human Evolutionary Genetics Group at the University of Oxford (England), as well as the main author of the article published in the journal 'European Journal of Human Genetics'.

The majority of men who share relatively unusual family names, carried by less than 6,000 people in Spain, also tend to share an identical or very similar Y chromosome

Nonetheless, the analysis shows that as a surname becomes more common, the correlation with the Y chromosome gradually disappears. The data indicate that common family names do not represent men from the same family line given that all of them have different Y chromosomes.

Surname frequency - a key element in the correlation

For the study, in which the Forensic Science Institute at the University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain) also participated, 37 Spanish surnames were selected with the aim of providing wide geographic coverage in addition to representing a broad spectrum of frequency. Next, the surnames were classified into five groups: very common, surnames with over 150,000 bearers nationwide –Fernández, Martínez–; common, surnames with between 15,000 and 150,000 bearers nationwide –Aguirre, Díez–; uncommon, surnames with between 5,000 and 15,000 individuals –Tirado, Ibarra–; rare, surnames with between 3,000 and 5,000 bearers –Bengoechea, Cadenas–; and very rare, with between 100 and 3,000 individuals nationwide –Nortes, Albiol–.

A total of 1,766 samples of DNA were collected from unrelated male volunteers representing each of the 37 surnames, and another 355 control samples were obtained.

“The data show that the correlation or coancestry between the surname and the Y chromosome does not at all depend on the geographical origin (Castilian, Catalan or Basque) nor the type of surname (derived from the father's name, a place name, a profession, a nickname, a physical trait) –explains Martínez-Cadenas–. It only depends on the frequency of the surname”.

Relationship networks among men with the same surname for four Spanish surnames with different frequencies. / University Jaume I

According to the study, the origins of the Spanish surnames date back to an estimated 536 years ago on average. However, some surnames are older than others: their ages vary between 200 and 800 years old. “This age is calculated by determining the most recent common ancestor of study participants with a particular surname. This is not the true age of the surname, however, but rather the point in time when study participants of the same surname had the most recent common ancestor in the direct male line,” specifies the researcher.

The origins of the Spanish surnames date back to an estimated 536 years ago on average. However, some surnames are older than others: their ages vary between 200 and 800 years old

The Irish - a different case

Prior to this study on Spanish surnames, the only detailed research conducted had analysed the relationship between surnames and the Y chromosome in Great Britain and Ireland.

The researchers decided to compare these analyses in order to find similarities and differences among these three populations. They discovered that the correlation patterns between surnames and the Y chromosome in Spain were similar to those of the British study, but different from those of the Irish study.

“The analyses indicate that the Irish surnames are much older than those from Spain and the United Kingdom, in addition to presenting a correlation that does not depend on surname frequency” affirms Martínez-Cadenas.

“In Ireland, some very common surnames present a strong correlation between surname and the Y chromosome –something that is not observed in Spain or the United Kingdom–, while others do not,” sums up the researcher.

According to the study, despite the fact that Spain is a population with a historical, demographic and genetic background different from that of the British Isles, similarities with the development of British surnames suggest that the inverse correlation between the frequency of family names and the prevalence of the Y chromosome could be a general process.

The development of Irish surnames, appearing in clans in which even unrelated individuals share the same surname, would be the result of more unusual, specific circumstances.

Reference:

Conrado Martínez-Cadenas et al. “The relationship between surname frequency and Y chromosome variation in Spain”. European Journal of Human Genetics (2016) 24, 120–128; DOI:10.1038/ejhg.2015.75

"The temperament of the children is another important component, and some boys and girls are more impulsive and learn violent behaviour more easily," she adds Calvete

"On occasions adolescents assault their parents because the parents themselves have been violent towards the children or among themselves. Through exposure to family violence, children learn to be violent. Other times, it is the lack of affectionate and positive communication between parents and their children, the lack of quality time that is dedicated to the children, or permissive parenting styles that do not impose limits," affirms Esther Calvete, the main author of the study and a researcher at the University of Deusto, to SINC.

The work, published in ‘Developmental Psychology’, involved interviewing 591 adolescents from nine public and eleven private secondary schools in Vizcaya over the course of three years, allowing for analysis of the relationship between narcissism and aggression directed at parents by their children.

"In some cases we can observe that element of narcissism: it concerns adolescents who feel that they should have everything that they want, right here and now. They don't take no for an answer. When their parents try to establish limits, the children react aggressively," emphasizes Calvete.

The results demonstrate that exposure to violence during the first year of the study ended up in aggressions directed towards the parents during the third year. Similarly, a distant relationship between parents and children in the first year of the study was connected to narcissistic and an oversized self-image in the teenagers during the second year, with brought with it aggression towards fathers and mothers during the last year.

For that reason, according to the scientists, practices of education and upbringing are key. "If the parents do not raise their children with a sense of responsibility and respect, it is easy for the children to develop problems of aggressive behaviour. If the parents were violent when the children were small, it increases the risk of aggressive behaviour in children," the expert affirms.

But the behaviour displayed by fathers and mothers is not the only element. The temperament of the children is another important component, and some boys and girls are more impulsive and learn violent behaviour more easily," she adds.

Unchecked anger

These young people easily have the tendency to feel frustrated and rejected. When this occurs, first comes the yelling and insults, followed by physical aggression. "For that reason, when a father or mother perceives that that their son or daughter continually disrespects them, threatens them and scares them, it's a sign that they must act and ask for help," explains the scientist from the Department of Personality, Evaluation, and Psychological Treatment of the Basque university.

"When a father or mother perceives that that their son or daughter continually disrespects them, threatens them and scares them, it's a sign that they must act and ask for help," explains the scientist

As an example, in the study the authors recount an email that a woman sent to Brad J. Bushman of the University of Amsterdam (Netherlands), co-author of the study. "Our son sees himself as above everything. The other night I told him that he should stop looking at himself in the mirror, that he looked good. And he hit the roof. His father later told him that he had no right to talk to me in that manner. But my son has become more and more verbally aggressive, and the situation has deteriorated into violence. He hit my husband, who is recovering from bruised ribs and a broken jaw. The problem is that he continues to think that he is right. According to him, it's he who feels threatened," the mother explained.

According to Calvete, aggressiveness - above all between 13 to 15 years old, a critical age - manifests itself with rage and uncontrolled behaviour, directed towards damaging the parents physically or psychologically. "Teenagers can also steal or break their parents' belongings," Calvete adds, who points out that there are no differences between boys and girls. "Although the statistics show that the problem is becoming more prevalent in girls."

Once aggressive behaviour has emerged in adolescents, treatment should be directed towards reducing the narcissistic view that they have of themselves. For that reason, the team suggests "education in respect and tolerance of frustration, and avoiding the exposure of boys and girls to violence."

"Think of all the cases of violence towards women. Boys and girls can be witnesses to violence. This learning is something that must be the object of intervention and prevention," concludes Calvete.

Reference:

Calvete, Esther; Orue, Izaskun; Gamez-Guadix, Manuel; Bushman, Brad J. “Predictors of Child-to-Parent Aggression: A 3-Year Longitudinal Study” Developmental Psychology 51(5): 663-676 DOI: 10.1037/a0039092 2015

The results, published in the ‘Journal of Child and Family Studies’, show that these two variables in foster carers are important predictors of children’s problems within the family.

These two variables in foster carers are important predictors of children’s problems within the family

“Criticism and rejection by foster carers increases emotional and behavioural problems of their foster children due to increased strain on the foster carer and the impact on the self-esteem of the child,” explains María D. Salas, lead author of the study and scientist at the institute in Malaga, to SINC.

The study links a greater incidence of behavioural problems in foster children with various factors, such as emotional relationships within the social and family context and the educational style of foster carers, given that they are experiences that can trigger the appearance of maladaptive behaviour in the children.

For the authors, “this information could be useful in identifying and selecting foster carers with the best characteristics to carry out this task, as well as emphasise the importance of positive emotional relationships in the training and support given by welfare officers to foster carers”.

The sample included 104 foster children (56 boys and 48 girls), aged 11 on average, and their foster carers (86 families). All of the foster families in Malaga, Granada and Jaen participated in the study. The information was provided through the Child Protection System of each of the provinces.

Impulsivity and lack of concentration

Bearing in mind previous research, the main objective of this study was to identify the factors relating to greater emotional and behavioural problems among children, in the context of foster care (behavioural problems, impulsivity and attention deficit).

The scientists detected several variables: older children going into foster care present more problems; children with greater self-esteem suffer from fewer complications but these can increase due to the strain on foster families.

“In terms of family strain, training programmes could be implemented to help foster carers to acquire habits to cope with the children’s behavioural problems. These programmes should include the possibility of sharing experiences with other foster carers and participate in resolving these complications,” adds Salas.

As the authors conclude, “the preparation and support of social workers to foster families is fundamental in reducing the problems of foster children and the strain on those who care for them”.

Reference:

María D. Salas; Miguel A. García-Martín; María J. Fuentes; Isabel M. Bernedo. Variables implicadas en los problemas de conducta y emocionales de los niños en acogimiento familiar. J Child Fam Stud DOI 10.1007/s10826-014-9944-1

In general terms, the data presented by the IUNE Observatory shows that, despite stalled growth in the number of researchers over recent years, production in Web of Science (one of the main database on world-wide scientific production) has continued to grow. This represents a remarkable increase in productivity over the last decade from 0.42 documents per researcher in 2004, to 0.77 in 2013.

Growth by autonomous region and academic field

The scientific work of the universities in each autonomous region has developed in line with the universities’ surroundings; consequently, the highest levels of production continue to be seen in Catalonia, Madrid, Valencia and Andalusia. It is also important to highlight the fact that Galicia and the Basque Country, despite their smaller size, have shown significant growth in the last decade. In smaller regions, production tends to be more discrete and seems to have reached the limit of its structural capacity in recent years; this is certainly the case in Extremadura and La Rioja.

In relation to academic fields, we can see that the area with the greatest growth in research activity at university level continues to be Experimental Sciences (EXP), Medicine (MED) and Engineering (ENG), which show virtually identical patterns. However, in Life Sciences (BIO), although growth levels have been similar to those in the two previously mentioned fields, the target of 10,000 annual publications has still not been reached. Furthermore, production in both Social Sciences (SOC) and Arts and Humanities (ART-HUM) has failed to increase over the last three years.

More collaborative and international science

Collaboration among authors, institutions and countries shows a growing trend in the area of university research. There is evidence of this, for example, in the level of co-authorship of publications. During the period studied, collaborations between authors have risen from an average of seven authors per document in 2004, to seventeen in 2013. At the same time, in 2004, 35% of the documents published by Spanish universities involved international collaboration, with that figure increasing to 44% in 2013; the level of national collaboration has held steady, around 29%, throughout this whole period. At country level, Spanish universities have collaborated mainly with institutions in the USA, United Kingdom, France, Germany and Italy

During the same decade, 3,657 patents have been awarded to universities; this represents growth of 165% between 2004 and 2013. Another interesting indicator is the competitiveness that has been measured through the number of projects at both the national level (Plan Nacional), and the European level (EU Framework Programs). Projects at the national level have been decreasing steadily, especially since 2009. On the other hand, European Union projects remained steady in terms of volume until 2009; since then, they have shown a steady increase up to 60%. “The behavior observed with respect to competitiveness can be understood as a reflection of the pattern of research activity of the Spanish universities which, in recent years, due to the economic crisis and consequent spending cuts suffered in the scientific programs, they have had to focus the search for funding beyond national borders,” explained Professor Sanz Casado.

Finally, the report cautions that there has been a considerable decline in funding for grants for pre-doctoral training, especially in the FPU (University Faculty Training). However, the number of dissertations submitted has continued to grow. This can be explained if we consider that many graduate students are from overseas and have grants from their countries and institutions of origin. Even so, the question of how will impact the decrease in predoctoral contracts on the number of dissertations submitted in the coming years remains open.

Indicators by university

As in previous editions, the IUNE Observatory has maintained one of its most distinguished aspects: information is analyzed separately for each public and private university. Faithful to its philosophy, it continues to use official information from sources such as the INE (the National Institute of Statistics), MECD (the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport), MINECO (the Ministry of Finance and Competitiveness), OEPM (the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office) and CDTI (the Centre for Industrial Development). In this new edition, data relating to sexenios (six year periods of outside assessment of research activity obtained from the MECD) has been updated, along with innovation data obtained from the RedOTRI – which has resumed its annual survey of universities. The IUNE Observatory, supported by the Alianza 4U, continues for one more year to provide valuable information in order to analyze the development of the SUE.

“Women from different generations have experienced different policy interventions, marketing strategies and cultural changes that have determined their behaviour”

A new study led by two sisters from the University of Zaragoza (Unizar) has analysed how policy actions affect tobacco consumption decisions among Spanish women. For this purpose, the researchers focused on four different generation cohorts: women born prior to 1950; those born between 1951 and 1964; between 1965 and 1983; and between 1985 and 1999.

The results, published in ‘Addictive Behaviors’, show that the determining factors behind smoking – influenced by anti-smoking campaigns, vary as a function of when a women is born. And the reason is simple:

As Ana Isabel Gil-Lacruz from the Business Management department at Unizar, the main author of the study, explains to SINC: “Women from different generations have experienced different policy interventions, marketing strategies and cultural changes that have determined their behaviour.”

The younger, the more likely to smoke

The study is based on the premise that general adoption of unhealthy behaviours (smoking, drinking and lack of physical activity, among others) begins by causing more health problems to people with high incomes.

In the long run, however, “the majority of chronic diseases are suffered by the most financially disadvantaged,” the expert affirms, adding that women, especially those of low socioeconomic conditions, are a population cohort vulnerable to tobacco products.

In the long run, “the majority of chronic diseases are suffered by the most financially disadvantaged”

In terms of the rates of smoking, women over 65 years old smoke the least. However, those between 16 and 50 years old are the most likely to smoke, “even if they have high levels of education,” Gil-Lacruz reports.

According to the researchers, this is because older women, who grew up under Franco’s dictatorship, were conditioned by society and, consequently, their rates of smoking are lower. But from the liberation in the 1960s, women of subsequent generations took up the habit of smoking as an act of rebellion and modernity.

From this information, the scientists noticed that anti-tobacco strategies targeted towards product labelling, prices and accessibility impact differently upon each of these generation cohorts.

After analysing 48,755 responses from women in Spanish National Health surveys in 2001, 2003, 2006 and 2011, the team concludes that cigarette prices and pictorial labels are good tools for reducing smoking rates among women.

“Highly educated women are more sensitive to prices and less educated women to pictorial labels,” the expert points out, so both policies are effective in reducing tobacco consumption among women. But pictorial labels have a double value: “They are targeted towards the most vulnerable (less educated women),” says Marta Gil-Lacruz from the Unizar Department of Psychology and Sociology.

According to the two researcher sisters, we must differentiate smoking habits across generations, genders and countries to achieve more effective anti-smoking policies. Furthermore, “it is necessary to come up with the strategies most suited to them and include them in national policy,” they specify.

Reference:

Gil-Lacruz, Ana Isabel; Gil-Lacruz, Marta; Leeder, Stephen. “Women and smoking - Prices and health warning messages: Evidence from Spain” Addictive Behaviors 45: 294-300 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.01.016 junio de 2015

Catarina Ferreira, researcher at Trent University (Canada), the Institute of Research in Game Resources and CIBIO-UP in Portugal, is leading a study reviewing the history of this review process. In the study, published in ‘Biological Reviews’, Ferreira highlights the resistance of this technique to changes in publishing practices, which has further exacerbated the vulnerabilities of this system.

“The main weaknesses are currently related to three aspects: the voluntary nature of the peer review, since ‘peers’ only participate in the process if they wish, the disparity of review criteria or guidelines produced by scientific journals, and a lack of tangible recognition of the reviewers for their service to the scientific community. All of the above makes the peer review process slow, highly subjective, and results in reviews of greatly varying quality,” the researcher told SINC.

This is a serious problem, not only for the scientific community, but also for the journals, which in the last few years have openly recognised that it is increasingly difficult to secure the participation of scientists as reviewers –in ecology, the non-acceptance rate for requests to review articles is 49%– and obtain high quality exams.

“Cases of scientific fraud and retractions of articles –adds Ferreira– are increasing, and they reflect the ineffective examination on which a weak peer review is based”.

The steps for publishing in a scientific review

In the specific case of this study, all of the authors, who are trained as biologists, focussed on the field of ecology and evolution. From the hundreds of scientific journals that are published in these fields, they chose to contact the 38 considered to be the top journals, as classified by the standings produced by ‘Google Scholar Metric’.

“We did it in this manner simply because we assumed that the journals that have a higher ‘traffic’ of articles received also have more pressure to improve the peer review system,” argued the expert. Peer review was defined as “not consistent” in all of the 38 journals selected on ecology and evolution, and scientists ensure that it is something that is a cross-cutting issue in practically all scientific fields.

“The definition of an ‘ideal’ peer review is somewhat complex and, currently, even the journals that have the most organised systems struggle with weak reviews, which demonstrates that standardising review criteria and guidelines does not at all resolve all of the weaknesses in the system,” the researcher added.

How can this system be improved?

Some measures have been suggested as potential mitigators of weaknesses such as the privatisation of peer reviews and making participation mandatory.

“Applying correction factors to the h-index –the highest number of articles that an author has published and been cited at least the same number of times–, paying fees to the reviewers or offering them royalties (such as discounts on subscription fees or acknowledgement notes) are some of the proposals. Moreover, some editors are making efforts to homogenise review criteria between them, such as the British Ecological Society, and some review guidelines exist, although there is no agreed criteria on which is the most relevant,” highlights Ferreira.

In the 38 reviews analysed, the disparity of methods used by the journals to instruct their reviewers on peer reviews was evident, from the complete absence of guidelines and unclear criteria, to more formal systems with forms and defined criteria.

“None of the measures proposed to date has the potential to resolve the problems in the long term, because they are partial and not holistic. In our opinion, a contemporary peer review process, in which the current needs of the scientific community are addressed, should be centralised in a platform –independent of journals, whose interests are above all financial– with clear review criteria and guidelines, adjusted according to the scientific field,” the researcher concludes.

They also propose that this centralisation be led by scientists, since this would facilitate the standardisation of the process, as well as increasing its transparency and reliability.

References:

Catarina Ferreira et al. “The evolution of peer review as a basis for scientific publication: directional selection towards a robust discipline?” Biological Reviews 2015, doi: 10.1111/brv.12185.

“Humiliation is an emotion which, although similar to shame (both share the acceptance that there is something intrinsically negative in the self), differs from it in a crucial aspect: humiliation involves considering the devaluation of the self as unjust. The perception of being a victim of an injustice makes humiliation closer to anger,” Saulo Fernández, social psychology lecturer at UNED and main researcher of this study, tells SINC.

Therefore, humiliation is an emotion in which the person accepts or interiorizes a devaluation of the self which, paradoxically, they perceive as unjust or has been caused by an unjust action of others.

Another conclusion of the research is that humiliation predisposes two antagonistic types of behaviour: flight (typical of shame) and confrontation (typical of anger). “This is due to the base of humiliation having cognitive valuations that are typical of both emotions,” says the expert.

Confront angrily or accept the debasement

The studies presented by the scientists are based on two different and complementary methodologies. “In the first study, 540 UNED students were presented with a scenario which described how a university lecturer strongly devalued the work done by a first-year student,” explains Fernández.

The variables observed were: acceptance of the devaluation of the self; valuation of the lecturer’s actions as just or unjust; awareness of the event, i.e. whether the student thought that the whole class knew or just the lecturer and themselves knew, and lastly, the status of the lecturer (whether the student held the lecturer in high or low regard).

Each participant read one of the 16 scenarios proposed by the researchers (arising from the combination of the four variables mentioned above). Then, each participant was asked how they thought the student would feel (anger, shame, embarrassment or humiliation) and how they thought they would act (confronting or avoiding the lecturer).

“What we saw was that the valuations of acceptance and fairness are key to predicting humiliation and in differentiating this emotion from shame, anger and embarrassment,” stresses the researcher.

As expected, the participants considered that the student would feel more humiliation when the scenario that they had read combined injustice with acceptance by the individual of the humiliating situation. Awareness of the event, i.e. that the rest of the classmates knew about it, also influences in the degree of humiliation expected, but this valuation is not key to differentiating between humiliation and shame.

Humiliation, shame and anger

In the second study the participants (150 UNED students) were divided into three groups: humiliation, shame and anger.

“First of all we asked them all to write anonymously about an autobiographical episode in which the dominant emotion had been humiliation, shame or anger. Afterwards they had to answer a questionnaire which included measures about how they had considered the situation and how they had acted,” says Fernández.

What they found was that the participants who were in the ‘humiliation’ group scored highly in the valuation measures of acceptance of the self and of injustice, those in the ‘shame’ group scored highly in the acceptance of the self and low in considering it an injustice, and those in the ‘anger’ group scored highly in the valuation of the injustice and low in acceptance of the devaluation.

In terms of the behaviour, the participants in the ‘humiliation’ group scored highly in the measures linked to behaviour of flight and confrontation, while those in the ‘shame’ and ‘anger’ groups only scored highly in the type of behaviour traditionally associated with the emotions of flight (the ‘shame’ group) and confrontation (the ‘anger’ group).

According to the researcher, the work deepens the understanding of this complex emotion, which can help therapists and other professionals to better understand victims of humiliation.

Referencia bibliográfica:

Fernández, S., Saguy, T., Halperin, E. (2015). “The paradox of humiliation: The acceptance of an unjust devaluation of the self”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. DOI:10.1177/0146167215586195.

Numerous studies have been carried out which indicate rates of intimate partner violence against women are higher among Latin American immigrants than Spanish natives.

A recent study carried out by the University of Valencia (UV) and the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB) analysed the differences between male Latin American immigrants and Spaniards convicted of violence against women with regard to their attitudes towards violence, attribution of responsibility, sexism and risk of re-offending at the beginning of a batterer intervention programme. They interviewed 278 men that had completed the programme for domestic violence convicts (211 Spaniards and 67 Latin American immigrants).

“Our results indicate that before the intervention programme started, Spanish and Latin American immigrant aggressors perceived the severity of intimate partner violence differently. The latter group considered some situations involving intimate partner violence to be less severe,” Marisol Lila, from the Social Psychology Department of the UV and co-author of the study published in the journal ‘Psychosocial Intervention’, told Sinc..

In addition to the differences in severity perception, the study indicates that the sample showed differences in age, level of education and salary, factors which were controlled through statistical analysis.

“The Latin American immigrants, in comparison with the Spaniards, were younger, had a higher level of education and a lower socioeconomic status. Additionally, their perception of intimate partner violence against women seemed less severe, they blamed the victim more, were more accepting towards aggression and registered higher levels of benevolent sexism,” added Lila. In contrast, no significant differences were found in hostile sexism, attribution of responsibility or risk of re-offending.

These data imply that there is a social climate of acceptance among the Latin American immigrant population as they are more tolerant towards violence, tend to blame the female victims, and consider cases of intimate partner violence against women to be less severe. This, therefore, goes some way to explaining the higher rates of intimate partner violence among Spain’s Latin American population.

Intervention is equally effective for both groups

Despite the differences between the Latin American and Spanish aggressors at the beginning of the intervention programme, both groups showed positive signs of change in the majority of the factors evaluated when they had completed the initiative.

“The overall sample shows an increase in severity perception of intimate partner violence and a reduction in factors that legitimise it, such as blaming the victim and sexism (both hostile and benevolent),” the researcher pointed out.

These results suggest the programme is equally effective with regard to perceptions, attitudes, beliefs and the risk of re-offending for both groups of aggressors, confirming the conclusions obtained from previous studies – from both Spain and the USA – in which no differences in the intervention's effectiveness on culturally diverse groups was found.

“We have come to the conclusion that the programme is effective for both cultural groups despite their initial differences and, therefore, there is no need to adapt it specifically to Latin American immigrant aggressors or split them up into groups according to their origin," Lila stressed.

Nine-month programme for batterers

The intervention programme for gender-based violence aggressors lasts approximately nine months and consists of weekly group sessions. The various activities focus on the factors that, according to scientific researchers, play an important role in the violent conduct of men who assault their partners.

It is based on the social ecological model; in other words, various levels of analysis and intervention are taken into consideration: personal, interpersonal, social and macrosocial. Therefore, all the activities are related to one of these levels.

“So examples of what we work on are, among other things, accepting responsibility, emotional control skills, self-esteem, anger and stress management, the relationship between partners and between parents and children, social support, gender roles and social attitudes towards intimate partner violence,” Lila explained.

Furthermore, since 2011 a new intervention protocol has been implemented, which includes a personalised motivation plan that aims to promote change and the therapeutic relationship to further increase the programme’s effectiveness.

“In general, men that assault their partners use a series of mechanisms that enable them to manipulate their feeling of guilt and justify what they have done. One of these mechanisms is to externalise their guilt, either to the law, the context of the moment, or the victim, arguing, for example, that it was her conduct that incited the violence. We are unable to define the victims by one collective or another from the available data,” concluded the scientist.

References:

Viviana Vargas, Marisol Lila y Alba Catalá-Miñana“¿Influyen las diferencias culturales en los resultados de los programas de intervención con maltratadores? Un estudio con agresores españoles y latinoamericanos”, Psychosocial Intervention 24: 41–47, 2015.

The researchers used financial indicators or ratios from North-American entities for the period between 2002 and 2012. From this data and operating in a different time period, the model managed to deduce how many would go bankrupt between May 2012 and December 2013. According to the study published in the journal ‘Expert Systems with Applications’, the results were correct 96% of the time.

“There are many analyses which can predict bankruptcy one year in advance, which is too short a timeframe to take preventative action,” as one of the authors, Iván Pastor, tells SINC. Pastor highlights the predictive capacity of their short, medium and long-term algorithms, which relate respectively to one, two and three years.

The researcher points out that they created the model using neuronal networks, a set of algorithms which function by imitating the behaviour of the human nervous system and which are very useful in detecting patterns. These are what predict the possibility of bankruptcy.

“This methodology also generates a two-dimensional map which will help bank authorities and regulators to visualise the whole financial system and identify problematic entities in the very short-term, as well as solvent entities which could present problems in the long-term,” says Pastor.

Thanks to these analyses the different routes which could lead a financial entity to bankruptcy could also be observed. By applying the model it is clear that those which presented a greater risk were those with a high concentration of construction-related loans, those which grew very rapidly, did not have a proper market capitalisation and had low levels of provisions.

Potential to predict for other dates and countries

“The results that we obtained for December 2013 demonstrated that the US financial system had improved compared to the darkest moments of the economic crisis, but there were still entities at high risk of going bankrupt, although they were generally minor entities,” adds Pastor, who recognises that the model has not yet been updated with 2015 data, “although, given enough time, it could be done”.

The expert confirms that this methodology could be applied to learn the bankruptcy potential of financial entities in other countries, with the necessary readjustments and modifications to each nation’s characteristics.

“For example, some financial ratios employed in the US are not available in Spain, given that less information is public in our country,” adds Pastor, although he comments on another study currently in progress: “We are waiting for a study to be published on Spanish savings banks, where we analyse how many of them ended up bankrupt or bailed out, as well as identify the factors differentiating healthy and failed entities”.

Referencia bibliográfica:

Félix J. López Iturriaga e Iván Pastor Sanz. “Bankruptcy visualization and prediction using neural networks: A study of U.S. commercial banks”. Expert Systems with Applications 42: 2857–2869, 15 de abril de 2015.

The PAH is driven by a determination to fulfil the right to housing included in article 47 of the Spanish Constitution

To understand the success behind the stopping of evictions making the front pages of papers every day, Eva Álvarez, a town planner at Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid, has examined the ability of these social movements to produce real changes.

The study, published in the journal ‘Habitat International’, explores the way in which this network of social movements rapidly spreads, driven by a determination to fulfil the right to housing included in article 47 of the Spanish Constitution.

“We wanted to highlight the problem of evictions and the efforts of people affected by mortgages, to defend their rights while institutions are turning their back on the real situation,” says Álvarez.

Demonstration against evictions./ Olmo Calvo-Sinc

The power of social action

The study includes the main keys to success of the social movement that stopped its first eviction in 2011, while the 15M movement was in full swing. For the researcher, PAH knew how to raise awareness of the reality of the situation and how to react, especially in putting justice before ‘legality’. In fact, Spanish Mortgage Law has been declared illegal by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). “PAH has managed to change collective thinking and make people come together,” says the town planner.

“The most difficult aspect is not stopping an eviction but managing to make the victims stop feeling fearful and start to become more empowered and act"

“The most difficult aspect is not stopping an eviction but managing to make the victims (sometimes driven to suicide) stop feeling fearful and start to become more empowered and act,” the expert tells SINC. Álvarez is also president of the Spanish offshoot of the ATD Fourth World movement, an international anti-poverty association.

For the many of those affected by mortgages who are faced with this dramatic situation “PAH has allowed them to lead their own process of change and transformation,” she adds. Once they have become re-empowered, people have been able to organise themselves to defend a right “that the law itself infringes upon,” laments Álvarez.

PAH has also shown how it can change the political agenda, something observed in the manifestos written for the upcoming elections: all parties have included the defence of housing rights in one way or another. “Even the parties that have denied this reality in previous terms of office now include it in their political manifestos. Another thing will be whether they later follow through on it but at least there has been a change,” the researcher points out.

“It could easily be you”

According to the research, the growth of this social movement has been vital in stopping so many evictions. It has spread over a hybrid space in two ways: both geographically and on social networks.

"As soon as you lose your job and you cannot pay your mortgage for two months, you could end up like these people"

In terms of geography, local spaces and groups have allowed for the transformation of those bringing about the changes who “infect neighbours,” observes Álvarez. In addition there are the social networks, “a very easily replicable structure in terms of ways in which to act and their contents,” emphasises the expert who considers that science must be at the service of society.

One of the aspects which arises as a result of the movement is the topic of empathy, which is not tackled by the study. “PAH’s success lies in people empathising with the problems of evicted families. The public understands that they could be in the position of the person evicted from their mortgage. As soon as you lose your job and you cannot pay your mortgage for two months, you could end up like these people,” concludes the town planner, who considers empathy as the force behind the social action.

Reference:

Álvarez de Andrés, Eva; Campos, Maria Jose Zapata; Zapata, Patrik. “Stop the evictions! The diffusion of networked social movements and the emergence of a hybrid space: The case of the Spanish Mortgage Victims Group” Habitat International 46: 252-259 DOI: 10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.10.002 Abril de 2015

The new study demonstrates for the first time in Spanish that dyslexia is not only a problem in learning to read

Experts currently attribute this disorder to a phonological impairment which translates into difficulty in suitably representing phonemes to automate the rules of grapheme-phoneme conversion and maintain the phonological information in the working memory.

A new study, published in ‘Research in Developmental Disabilities’, demonstrates for the first time in Spanish (evidence for this already exists in English) that dyslexia is not only a problem in learning to read. Children with this difficulty also display impaired prosodic processing (also known as supra-segmental phonology).

To demonstrate this, the team of scientists lead by the University of Granada (UGR), performed a series of experiments with 31 Spanish children: “We designed a task which consisted of the participants having to detect and use the keyboard to point out the stressed syllable from a series of spoken stimuli,” explains Gracia Jiménez-Fernández to SINC. Jiménez-Fernández is a researcher in the department of Developmental Psychology and Education at UGR and the lead author of this study.

More errors for dyslexic children

In the first task, the stimuli were words with three syllables which could carry the stress on the last syllable (with or without an accent), the penultimate syllable (again with or without an accent) or the antepenultimate syllable. The second task had the same structure but the stimuli presented were pseudowords (nonsensical words in Spanish that respect graphotactical rules, for example ‘cátupos’).

The group with dyslexia showed a significantly greater number of errors in detecting the stressed syllable and also took longer to respond

“It is worth pointing out that the words and pseudowords were presented in spoken form, meaning that at no point did the child have to read them, they just had to listen to them and indicate the stressed syllable using the keyboard,” says Jiménez-Fernández.

According to the results, the group with dyslexia showed a significantly greater number of errors in detecting the stressed syllable and also took longer to respond. It was also revealed by comparing the performances with the words and pseudowords that the participants in the control group (without dyslexia) employed different strategies in each case, using the lexical knowledge they possessed about the words.

However, the dyslexic participants tended to apply a single strategy to process the words and pseudowords without being able to use their lexical knowledge. “What we still do not know is whether the dyslexic group does not possess such lexical knowledge or, despite possessing it, cannot use it in this type of task,” notes the researcher.

The authors consider it “essential” to include tasks with pseudowords to study this type of dyslexia and for children to learn to differentiate tones, word stress and intonation. Therefore, “dyslexia intervention must not only include reading and segmental phonology activities (phonological awareness) but also pay special attention to supra-segmental or prosodic processing,” warns the researcher.

Reference:

Jiménez-Fernández, Gracia; Gutiérrez-Palma, Nicolás; Defior, Sylvia. “Impaired stress awareness in Spanish children with developmental dyslexia” Research in Developmental Disabilities 37: 152-161 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.11.002 February 2015

This is a fundamental matter to bear in mind given that it establishes the power balance within the relationship and, to a large extent, reflects the economic relations of society.

“Negotiating the management of finances promotes gender equality. However, one of the main obstacles to these agreements within a partnership is the prevailing ideal of romantic love in our society,” Amaia Agirre from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) tells SINC.

Romantic love is the ideology that projects the couple as an “inseparable and problem-free” unit at the heart of social and affective relations,” adds Agirre. This means considering the couple as a unit and therefore, defending personal and individual interests is seen as a problematic aspect.

For the study, the researcher carried out in-depth interviews of between 90 minutes and 120 minutes in length with 30 different people who labelled themselves as equals in their relationship. She also used quantitative data relating to Basque society gathered by the Basque Institute for Statistics (EUSTAT) which reflected the overall and structural situation.

Three ways of managing money

The three models identified for sharing out capital were: shared and separate money, all money considered a joint resource, or all money kept separately.

“The most usual model for the couples defining themselves as ‘equal’ was to differentiate between shared and separate money, as a way of maintaining individuality compared to the ideal of romantic love, and as a means of avoiding eventual conflicts,” Agirre declares.

The most influential variables for the couple in choosing one or another option are age, whether they have children, and how essential they view the negotiation. The study did not find significant differences between the testimonies of homosexual and heterosexual couples.

“This study can be extrapolated to other parts of Europe. The sample used is from the Basque Country (not the whole of Europe), but there are previous studies by Capitolina Díaz, President of the Association of Women Researchers and Technologists, which corroborate the results and compare the situation between Spain, the US, Holland and Sweden,” concludes the researcher.

References:

Amaia Agirre Miguélez. “El dinero en la pareja: reflexiones sobre relaciones de pareja igualitarias”. RES 23: 9-27, 2015.

To reach this conclusion, the researcher compared the attitudes of over three thousand immigrant women from some twenty European countries with those of over forty thousand non-emigrant compatriots with similar characteristics. The study shows that immigrant women from the same country of origin tend to share values of traditionalism and religiosity regardless of the country they have settled in. Using this propensity, which is seen as a predictor of the women’s work behavior, Polavieja found that the negative impact of traditional values on female participation in the workforce proved to be much greater than what had previously been believed: its influence on the likelihood of a woman participating in the workforce is so strong that it is twice that of education.

An innovative method for studying the impact of culture

With this research, which was recently published in the journal American Sociological Review, Polavieja also offers a new way to respond to some of the great social science and economic questions: How does culture influence people’s behavior? This apparently simple question poses one of the most important methodological challenges facing the social sciences, explains Polavieja. In the words of the author, “the problem is that individuals’ values, tastes and preferences (their cultures) are determined by the social context they are immersed in, which in turn influences their opportunities and behavior as well. This makes it terribly difficult to separate the role of values, tastes and cultural preferences from social surroundings when human behavior is being explained.” Polavieja’s research proposes using the phenomenon of migration to separate the effect of culture from the effect of social surroundings, for which the study developed an innovative statistical method.

This research was carried out using data from the European Social Survey. The survey measured the traditionalism and religiosity of over three thousand women from 23 European countries, including Turkey and the Ukraine, who are residents in 25 different European countries. The immigrant women’s attitudes and values were compared with over 40,000 non-emigrant European women who were interviewed in the home countries.

The Spanish immigrants, among the least traditional in Europe

According to the study, the women from Turkey, Portugal, Poland and Ireland are the most traditional of the European immigrant women, while the Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish and Spanish women were the least traditional. The degree of traditionalism was defined by noting the importance the women gave to following customs, norms and values transmitted through religion and the family. The degree of traditionalism decreased as the level of education increased in all of the groups that were studied. This cultural characteristic was associated with “strong gender norms in public and in private,” explains the researcher.

The rate of participation in the workforce for the Spanish immigrant women (77%) was among the highest of the intra-European immigrants, clearly higher than the rates of the women from other countries in the southern part of the continent, such as Italy (60%) or Greece (53%). This figure was only higher in the cases of the women from Sweden (84%), Norway (82%) and Finland (80%) and it was significantly higher than the rates of the French immigrant women (62%), the German (61%) and the British and Irish (both at 59%). The Turkish immigrant women had the lowest rate of participation in the workforce (43%) of the 23 groups that were studied.

The possible applications of the methodology used by Professor Polavieja for this research transcend the relationship between traditionalism and the labor market. He explains this himself when he states that the method that was developed can be used to study any type of cultural impact on human behavior, as long as it can be measured using surveys. This research is part of the Competition, Adaptation and Labor Market Achievement (CALMA) project, which is part of the sixth national program of the Ministry of the Economy and Competitiveness’s Scientific Research Plan (Plan de Investigaciones Científicas del Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad).

Reference:

Polavieja, Javier G. 2015. “Capturing Culture: A New Method to Estimate Exogenous Cultural Effects Using Migrant Populations”. American Sociological Review Vol. 80(1) 166–191.

The scientists surveyed 1,503 pupils in their second, third and fourth year of secondary school and 1,291 staying on for their first and second year of their Baccalaureate on the Balearic Islands. The results show that practices constituting plagiarism are widespread in secondary school classrooms.

The study, published in ‘Comunicar’, also shows that the boys tend to commit plagiarism significantly more than the girls and that the pupils that tend to leave work until the last minute have a higher propensity to plagiarise.

“The common practices are known as ‘collage plagiarism’, or rather, creating work by copying odd fragments of text, either from digital or printed sources and including them in an academic piece without referencing them,” as Rubén Comas-Forgas, researcher at the University of the Balearic Islands and co-author of the work, explains to SINC.

A total of 81.3% of pupils declared to have copied fragments of texts from websites that they pasted directly into a document and handed in as work for a subject without referencing the source at least once during the previous academic year.

Similarly, 72.5% admitted to having copied (without referencing) fragments of printed sources (books, encyclopaedias, newspapers, magazine articles, etc.) and having added them as part of their work for a subject.

Other less common actions were: downloading the full piece of work from the internet and handing it in as their own, or presenting work already handed in by other pupils in previous years.

According to Comas-Forgas, “the secondary education centres must plan for and tackle this with decisive measures to reduce and prevent this type of academic fraud”.

The close relationship between procrastination and fraud

The results also recommend that teachers monitor and effectively control the process for creating academic work. “The improvement of pupils’ abilities to source information is one of the necessary strategies to effectively confront the problem,” adds the researcher.

For the authors, the fact that (as reflected by the data confirmed in this work) there is a marked relationship between plagiarism and procrastination or postponement is worth highlighting.

“The explanation can be this simple: pupils who have the greatest tendency to leave tasks until the last minute do not have time to do the activity set by the teacher themselves and the only way that they can do the work is by plagiarising in some way,” Comas-Forgas points out.

A ‘practice range’ for corruption

Teachers who set work and do not monitor its progress in any way “fuel the chance that their students leave the task to the last minute,” argues the expert.

For this reason, the team recommends breaking the work up and carrying out regular checks on the tasks, monitoring the process and not simply waiting for the outcome.

The study proposes the need to include academic integrity values in the educational centres, both as regulations and in adopting teaching methodologies adapted to information technology.

“We have to teach the pupils how to use the information effectively and ethically. Fraud in education is the main type of non-violent or white-collar antisocial academic behaviour. Not only that, but it is also the key practice range for fraud and corruption, as indicated in a pioneering study on the topic by teacher Juan Manuel Moreno in 2001,” he concludes.

References:

Jaume Sureda-Negre, Rubén Comas-Forgas, Miquel F. Oliver-Trobat. “Plagio académico entre alumnado de secundaria y bachillerato: Diferencias en cuanto al género y la procrastinación” Comunicar nº 44, v. XXII, 2015.

El trabajo se enmarca en las actividades del proyecto “El plagio académico entre el alumnado de ESO de Baleares” financiado por la Dirección General de Investigación del Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación del Gobierno de España.

Mercedes Alcañiz, a researcher at Jaume I University in Castellón, has analysed the work-life balancing strategies employed by women in various social positions in order to discover the most significant differences between them and the factors they depend on: their ideology, gender identity or gender relations in couples.

Women with qualified jobs hire domestic help to take care of housework and look after their children

As Mercedes Alcañiz, the author of the study published in the Revista Española de Sociología (Spanish Sociology Journal), informs SINC: “The options chosen by the women we interviewed vary by social class, ascertained according to job role. The availability of money is the core factor that separates women in one position or another. However, in all cases, women are the ones who compromise.”

In the qualitative study, 30 in-depth interviews were conducted of women between the ages of 32 and 48, representative of different social classes, in Madrid and Valencia. The project also includes data from the latest Labour Force surveys of the National Institute of Statistics (INE in Spanish).

They classes women into three groups by occupation: those with unskilled jobs, with ‘white collar’ jobs – administrative jobs requiring secondary schooling – and professionals in highly qualified roles.

“Women with qualified jobs hire domestic help to take care of housework and look after their children. Although they are the brains behind these tasks, they do not undertake them directly but pass them on to another woman who replaces them for payment. We could see this as commercialised balancing,” Alcañiz adds.

The interview script consisted in themes referring to their family and work situations; how tasks are shared with their partners; balancing strategies and how decisions had been taken; and evaluation of their occupational and care work.

The progressive equality of women’s and men’s rights on the labour market does not correspond to a similar presence of men in the domestic and care sphere

Women with qualified work have more negotiating power

According to the latest data from the INE, the progressive equality of women’s and men’s rights on the labour market does not correspond to a similar presence of men in the domestic and care sphere. Women continue occupying both roles.

“Women in lowly skilled jobs, who have the lowest salaries, have to resort to the least financially costly strategies: family members, neighbours and friends helping them; sometimes they request to go part-time or even change jobs to one that offers increased potential for a work-life balance,” the researcher goes on.

Furthermore, in the case of women whose jobs are low-skilled, partners look after children only when the women are working away from home, not at home.

They also choose jobs with varying shifts. “In this case,” Alcañiz adds, “in a way they ‘force’ partners or husbands to look after the children when the mothers are working evenings or weekends.”

For women with the most high-qualification and best-paid jobs, differences can be observed in the involvement of their colleagues, among which businessmen or executives and civil servants working only in the mornings. Only the latter look after their children themselves. The former dedicate many hours to their jobs and only take their children to school.

“It would appear that women with white collar jobs create the best work-life balances, above all in terms of working hours, which enable them to balance a working morning with an afternoon of family tasks. These women employ paid domestic help for the most taxing household chores,” the expert indicates.

Businessmen or executives dedicate many hours to their jobs and only take their children to school

All in all, the strategies chosen by women are decided according to two variables: money and gender identity – which role is considered the man’s and which the woman’s.

The study also highlights that the current environment of economic crisis has led to a greater female presence in the labour market, but on occasion their choices remain limited to the work hours or type of occupation best suited to their balance of work/family life.

“Women have increased their participation in the work market, albeit often in jobs that are unstable, atypical or part-time, etc. A further study is required to see whether in couples where the man is unemployed there has been any change in the distribution of roles, or whether women still take care of the housework as part of their juggling act,” Alcañiz concludes.

Reference:

Mercedes Alcañiz. “Género con clase: la conciliación desigual de la vida laboral y familiar”. RES 23 (1578-2824): 29-55, 2015.

The results of the article are part of the research project “Economic cycle, inequality and employment: the inclusion of women in working life and its impact on inequality”. The project coordinator was Olga Salido, a lecturer at the Complutense University of Madrid’s Faculty of Political Sciences and Sociology. The project received an MICINN grant to be conducted.

Notwithstanding, there are suspicions of hypothetical fraud in the 2004 elections, which Hidalgo, together with Raúl Jiménez, professor of Statistics at UC3M, has studied with computer forensics in order to detect voting irregularities at the polling stations. Data provided by the Venezuelan National Electoral Council was evaluated using these computer forensics tools and all of the results revealed abnormal statistical patterns consistent with the hypothesis of fraud from 2004 on.

The study, published in the magazine PLOS ONE, questions Jimmy Carter’s claim that “Venezuela has the best electoral system in the world,” says Hidalgo. “Our analysis challenges the reliability of the electoral register. There is an atypical positive correlation between variations in the electoral register and voting intentions” which constitutes a reason “to doubt the validity of the results of some voting centers which were decisive in the 2004 referendum and the 2012 presidential elections,” explains Manuel Hidalgo.

Experts have observed "anomalous statistical patterns consistent with the hypothesis of electoral fraud since 2004"

The controversial electoral irregularities not only “affected the percentage of votes obtained by the winner in 2004, which influenced voters’ political behavior,” but also may have been “decisive in other electoral processes,” emphasized the UC3M researcher. “We can’t prove that the opposition would have won in 2004 and 2012 in fair elections with no irregularities,” recognizes Manuel Hidalgo. However, he has no doubt in asserting “with great confidence” that “the difference would have been much less than the officially recognized difference if there had been free and fair elections.”

International observers

The study also invites reflection upon the role of international observers in Venezuela from 2007 on. “Some international observers are not thorough and unbiased, and it seems that they have become a means of legitimizing the established order,” criticizes Manuel Hidalgo. According to Hidalgo, this research reveals the need for a complete audit of the Venezuelan electoral register, for respect for fair play during the whole electoral process, and for comprehensive inspections after the elections.

After testing this method, Manuel Hidalgo does not rule out applying these computer forensics tools to other elections such as those held in Russia, Zimbabwe or Uganda, and comparing them to electoral results which are not called into question, in countries such as in Spain, France and Austria.

Reference:

Jiménez R, Hidalgo M. "Forensic Analysis of Venezuelan Elections during the Chavez Presidency". PLOS One 9(6): e100884. doi:10.1371/journalpone.0100884 (2014).

“While between 2004 and 2007 our estimates say that one in every ten new homes built was for rent, nowadays new homes that are built to sell are below one. Phrased otherwise, the number of new homes created is the same as the number of houses that start to be rented out so the net creation of homes is actually for rent”, explained Juan Antonio Módenes, researcher at UAB and co-author of the study, to SINC.

"The number of new homes created is the same as the number of houses that start to be rented out so the net creation of homes is actually for rent”, explained the researcher

The scientists have used data from the Spanish National Office of Statistics (INE), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Eurostat and the Spanish Survey of Household Finances by the Bank of Spain. In total, they have calculated that the residential demand of the population (the annual increase in the number of homes) has decreased below 20% of the maximum figure reached in 2005 and 2006.

“The property and demographic bubbles have burst at the same time. These changes are affecting the most fundamental bases of the system, as is the property domain. With regards to renting, it is not so much about whether it has increased, but the change in its relative proportion, in a context of less family units being formed and decreasing demand”, Módenes indicated.

Renting has recovered significantly due mainly to globalisation and people moving elsewhere. “The change in the renting trend is due to young people’s lack of solvency in the current climate. If the inclination towards renting becomes more common, we will be witness to younger generations who rent more in succession to older generations who own their property”, the researcher points out.

During the property boom years new-builds increased exponentially, as did improvements to houses already standing. In the same way, immigrants and young people were those who had access to both buying and renting second-hand homes. “This huge availability of housing for rent is noticeable in the current recession and period of low relative demand”, adds Módenes.

Advantages of the new system

The new scenario would offer an easier and more stable way of leaving home, which would bring forward the priorities of families

For the researchers, a change to the residential model based on rent could have many advantages, such as the growth of independent construction and generation of wealth in the short term in developing, constructing, selling and mortgages.

“For the younger generation to leave home, even encouraging them to do so earlier, can only be done with an extensive offer of rental properties. As well as making the life transition easier for Spaniards, it would encourage economic growth through sustaining the internal demand”, the researcher has highlighted. “We believe that the social and demographic potential is there”, adds Módenes, “you just have to make the most of it”.

There are also social and family advantages: greater freedom in organising the life cycle of young people and their parents. Lastly, the new scenario would offer an easier and more stable way of leaving home, which would bring forward the priorities of families and their reproductive plans, with the consequent advance (even an increase) in fertility.

Everything depends on the policies applied

The researchers have designed two kinds of scenarios for the development of Spanish society according to the current residential trends (which will depend on the policies implemented).

The researchers insist that the changes indicated will occur in the medium to long term

On the one hand, it could be a change for the worse. “If the economic growth is low, creation of employment weak and labour conditions precarious for young people, access to housing will continue being mainly through ownership, but with restricted mortgages and difficulties to mobilise family networks as guarantors”, they state.

The other scenario, replacement of the residential system, is more positive. “It would consolidate renting as a step prior to home ownership, something very common in other countries”.

This scenario would also be reinforced if an active housing policy were in place that would increase the incentives to rent and the construction sector was focused on the renovation of old properties, which would be the main way for young people to access housing.

“We are currently in a situation that resembles the first scenario. To change to the second one, it is necessary to commit to incentivising the creation of housing for young people, one of the main driving forces for the economy”, argues Módenes.

The researchers insist that the changes indicated will occur in the medium to long term. “These are processes that imply generational changes”, they conclude.

Reference:

Módenes, Juan A. y López-Colas, Julián (2014). “Cambio demográfico reciente y vivienda en España: ¿hacia un nuevo sistema residencial?”. Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 148: 103-134. (http://dx.doi.org/10.5477/cis/reis.148.103)

A study by the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC) and the University of A Coruña has analysed the results achieved by students sitting this test to obtain results by sex.

“The methodology is based on analysing all of the qualifications obtained for the period 2008-2013, classifying them depending on different variables: sex, home environment (urban or rural), school type (public or private), parents’ qualifications and their employment,” explains Francisco Jesús Ferreiro, from the USC and co-author of the research to SINC.

A total of 1,522 students were analysed for this period, all of whom sat the test in Galicia.

“In order to sit the test for the prize the student’s average must be the top mark of ‘excellent’, and there were more girls (63%) with this mark than boys (37%). Winning the prize is very complicated, given that only 20 are awarded each year, which is 5.2% of the total number of students who sit the test. It is interesting that the ESO results in general are not high, and on average students fail in several subjects. The worst score is in Mathematics, followed by Social Sciences, Geography and History and in the options of Physics and Chemistry, and Biology and Geology,” confirms the researcher. However, they do pass languages (Spanish and Galician), and gain the best average results in English.

“The most striking thing about this study is seeing that in all these subjects put together the boys obtain a better average mark than the girls and significantly so,” adds the expert. “That is to say that there is a statistical probability of 95% that the average mark for the boys is better than the average mark for the girls”.

Yet, if during the school year there are more girls with excellent marks, how is it possible that the special prize does not reflect this?

“We would like to emphasise that any study must be treated with caution. Firstly, because our sample has special characteristics that cannot be extrapolated to the whole of secondary education, given that they are tests done only in Galicia and for a collective of excellent students; and secondly, because there are no national or international studies which analyse the results in this type of students allowing us to compare the results,” they conclude.

The study is in conjunction with another broader study on the average performance in the special ESO prize in Galicia, where they analyse the influence of the different variables, such as home and family environment and type of centre.

References:

Francisco Jesús Ferreiro Seoane, María Dorinda Mato Vázquez, Rocío Chao Fernández. “Análisis del rendimiento académico por género medido a través del premio extraordinario de la ESO”, RIPS 13 (2), 53-76. 2014.

These are precisely the keys to a study that was recently published by the Lex Nova publishing company. This research, which rests on legal and economic methodological bases, delves into the main problems of the Spanish system of unemployment protection: the drop in coverage, its effect on employment, its financial sustainability or its relationship with the problem of duality, in order to propose solutions that are balanced from the point of view of efficiency and equity.

Among its many conclusions, the one that stand out are those that are related to the influence that receiving benefits might have on the possibility of returning to the workforce. “It is wrong to affirm that receiving unemployment benefits removes the incentive to return to work; we have to specify in which cases. In this respect, the available data seem to demonstrate that there are different effects depending on whether the type of payment is contributive or aid subsidies, and in the second case, it depends on which type of subsidy. Furthermore, the relationship of all between these factors has to be taken into consideration,” explains Daniel Pérez del Prado, whose doctoral thesis centers on the study of the unemployment protection system from a legal-economic perspective. “Contrary to what is commonly believed, the amount and generosity of the benefits are not the elements that most discourage the return to work; rather the fundamental influence would be the length of time that benefits last,” he points out.

Unemployment subsidies only produce a negative effect on job seeking in the case of certain long-term benefits

Benefits

Contributive benefits come from the social security system. The duration and amount of the payments depend on how much the recipient had contributed to the system before becoming unemployed. On the other hand, aid subsidy benefits are connected to the lack of income (for those who have used up all their contributive benefits or are otherwise ineligible for benefits). Law determines the duration and amount of these subsidies and they are usually the most meager of benefits.

According to the study, unemployment subsidies only produce a negative effect on job seeking in the case of certain long-term benefits or cases where a chain of benefits leads to a prolonged period of unemployment. “If any discouragement exists, it is related more to long-term benefits than to the amount received, a situation we can correct by applying the adequate measures in the area of active employment policies,” he clarifies.

Indeed, further development of active employment policies in Spain, together with a reform in the level of assistance offered in unemployment protection, are the most important proposals for improving the system. “Although spending on unemployment has increased notably due to the huge increase in the rate of unemployment, there is no structural deficit problem in the system. If we add to this the fact that the intensity of unemployment protection is intermediate in contributive benefits, but low in the aid subsidies when compared to what is provided in other European countries, we can clearly see that it is at the aid subsidy level that we are “bleeding to death” and where we can exponentially improve the system’s ability to protect,” concludes the professor.

Reference:

Daniel Pérez del Prado, Jesús R. Mercader Uguina. "Prestación por desempleo: intensidad, duración y control". Lex Nova, Thomson Reuters, 2014. ISBN: 978-84-9898-871-0.

Now, a new research project establishes how frequently the Spanish population endures violence throughout childhood, given the lack of data obtained from children’s own reports.

As Noemí Pereda, the main author of this study and a researcher at the University of Barcelona, explains to SINC: “Establishing the incidence of victimisation of the youngest groups is a pressing need in Spain, as the studies carried out so far have largely focused on surveys targeted towards adult age brackets or have used statistics obtained from official organisations.”

The project relies on a sample of 1,107 Spanish adolescents (590 boys and 517 girls) chosen randomly at seven secondary education establishments. Their ages varied from 12 to 17 and they were asked to respond to the Juvenile Victimisation Questionnaire.

The questionnaire covers six victimisation modules: violence by common crimes (theft, robbery, vandalism), at the hands of carers (physical or emotional abuse, parental child abduction), peers and siblings (bullying at school, partner abuse), sexual (sexual abuse/aggression, indecent exposure), exposure to violence (between parents, from parents to siblings, community violence and cyber (bullying, sexual propositioning).

The results, published in the journal ‘Child Abuse & Neglect’, reveal that 83% of teenagers claimed to have fallen victim to at least one of the forms of violence assessed over the course of their lifetimes, and 68.6% had endured this in the last year.

61.5% of the young people surveyed claimed to have fallen prey to common crimes in their lifetimes, which makes this the most frequent form of victimisation. Victimisation at the hands of carers affected 25.3% of them over their lifetimes.

48.8% suffered victimisation from their peers or siblings and 8.7% endured sexual violence.

48.8% suffered victimisation from their peers or siblings and 8.7% endured sexual violence

Finally, 12.6% of the young people were victims of cyber-bullying.

“Victimisation of young people in Spain is more frequent than would be predicted and alerts us to a serious social problem that we should try to prevent in order to avoid future difficulties in these children’s development,” Pereda adds. “These same results have been found in countries that have applied this methodology based on information supplied by minors themselves.”

Gender differences

Significant differences were found in the forms of violence endured by boys and girls over their lives. Young males fall victim to more common crimes (68% of them have faced such crimes), whilst girls undergo more cases of emotional abuse at the hands of carers (23%), sexual victimisation (13.9%) and cyber-bullying.

“The study is an innovative approximation to the extent of child and youth victimisation in Spain. For the first time in Spain teenagers have been asked about multiple experiences of violence using a self-report tool, following the same methodology as other studies in Europe, such as in Finland and the United Kingdom,” the expert comments.

Nearly 20% of these young people were considered poly-victims when the events of the last year were considered.

“These young people need to be identified in order to find out how living through multiple forms of violence over their childhoods has affected their development. At the same time, they should be offered resources to prevent them from accepting violence in their relation to others and to assist them in assuring the wellbeing every child and teenager needs in order to become a healthy, assimilated citizen,” Pereda concludes.

References:

Pereda, N., Guilera, G. y Abad, J. (2014). Victimización y polivictimización en niños, niñas y adolescentes españoles: Resultados de una muestra comunitaria. Child Abuse & Neglect 38 (2014) 640–649.

Ellonen, N. y Salmi, V. (2011). Poly-victimization as a life condition: Correlates of poly-victimization among Finnish children. Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 12, 20-44.

Finkelhor, D. (2007). Developmental victimology: The comprehensive study of childhood victimization. En R.C. Davis, A.J. Lurigio y S. Herman (Eds.), Victims of crime (3rd ed.) (pp.9-34). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Finkelhor, D., Hamby, S.L., Ormrod, R. y Turner, H. (2005). The Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire: Reliability, validity, and national norms. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 383-412.

Finkelhor, D. y Hashima, P. (2001). The victimization of children & youth: A comprehensive overview. En S.O. White (Ed.), Law and social science perspectives on youth and justice (pp. 49-78). New York: Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers.

Finkelhor, D., Ormrod, R.K. y Turner, H.A. (2007a). Poly-victimization: A neglected component in child victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 7-26.

MacMillan, H.L. (1998). Child abuse: A community problem. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 158, 1301-1302.

Radford, L., Corral, S., Bradley, C. y Fisher, H.L. (2013). The prevalence and impact of child maltreatment and other types of victimization in the UK: Findings from a population survey of caregivers, children and young people and young adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37 (10), 801-813.

For Ruud Koopmans, sole author of a study published in early January in the ‘Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies’ and director of the WZB Berlin Social Science Centre (Germany), religious fundamentalism is defined in three ways: that believers should return to the eternal and unchangeable rules laid down in the past; that these rules only allow one interpretation and are binding for all believers; and that religious rules should have priority over secular laws.

The sociologist insists that religious fundamentalism –also interpreted as strict religiosity– is an ideology, that is a set of ideas that refer to attitudes towards the way of viewing life.

“Fundamentalism does not necessarily include or justify violence, as this is a form of behaviour and not an ideology,” explains Koopmans in a phone call from Berlin (Germany). The specialist compares this fundamentalism with fascism and communism, other ideologies that are not synonymous with violence.

“Fundamentalism does not necessarily include or justify violence, as this is a form of behaviour and not an ideology,” explains Koopmans

Nevertheless, “religious fundamentalism may encourage radicalisation. In general, it should not imply violence, although out-group hostility may be evident,” continues the expert.

But religious fundamentalism is not unique to Islam: the term originated with a Protestant movement in the early 20th century in the USA, which propagated a return to the ‘fundaments’ of the Christian faith and to a literal interpretation of the rules of the Bible.

Extended ideologies but not universal

Koopmans' study, based on a survey in 2008 of 9000 Europeans, compares the religious fundamentalism of immigrants and the children and grandchildren of Turkish and Moroccan Muslim immigrants (Sunni Muslims and to a lesser extent Alevites) of Turkish and Moroccan origin and native European Christians (Catholics, Protestants, Seventh Day Adventists, Jehova's Witnesses and Pentecost believers) in Germany, France, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Sweden, countries with a long generational history of immigration.

“Broadly speaking, between 40% and 45% of European Muslims have fundamentalist religious ideas, that is they agree with the three definitions of the term. Austria is the country with the highest percentage, 55%, while Germany has the lowest, 30%”, explains Koopmans.

According to the scientist, fundamentalism is not a marginal phenomenon among Muslims in Western Europe. “Although a majority of Muslims have more liberal views of the religion, this minority of fundamentalist Muslims is significant”, underlines the researcher who adds that although these attitudes are widespread “they are not universal among European Muslims”.

Austria es el país que presenta mayor porcentaje, un 55%, mientras que Alemania es el que menos, un 30%

The results show that if first and second generations are considered and if each definition is taken independently, almost 60% would return to the roots of Islam, 75% think there is only one interpretation of the Koran possible to which every Muslim should stick, and 65% say that religious rules are more important to them than the rules of the country in which they live. “However in second generation Muslims the levels are slightly lower (between 50% and 70%),” states the expert.

According to the study, Islamic fundamentalism, also known as Islam, prevails in Europe if compared to Christian fundamentalism, in which only 4% of Christians shared the ideas of the three statements of the definition. Among Protestants, fundamentalism reached 12%. “All fundamentalists are strictly religious but this does not mean that all strictly religious individuals are fundamentalists. Strict religiosity is more frequently associated to Islamic fundamentalists than to Christians,” claims the author.

In addition, Christian and Islamic fundamentalism decrease when the social and economic status is higher, “and this is even more so among the Muslim community”, indicates the sociologist. Nevertheless, “although in Europe religious fundamentalism is more widespread in Islam, in the USA it is Christian fundamentalism, especially among Protestants, which has the greatest support,” observes Koopmans who points out that the data from the study cannot be extrapolated to the rest of the world.

Demonstrations against the Paris attacks at the Place de la Republique in the French capital. / Olivier Ortelpa

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In Spain, with a more recent history of immigration, and for this reason not included in the study, followers of religious fundamentalism, in particular Islam, reach similar figures. A study conducted by the American PEW Research Centre revealed that Islamic fundamentalists make up more than 30% of the followers. “In fact, there is not much variation in the European countries,” declares the Researcher.

Hostility towards out-groups

The reactions generated as a result of the latest attacks in the French capital have merely served to fortify a growing Islamophobia and rejection of Muslims. “But Islam is not the problem. Nor is it true that a majority of Muslims have fundamentalist ideals,” says the expert.

Religious fundamentalism is not new. Since the nineties, these attitudes are found among Christians and in Islam, remaining stable in the case of the latter.

“What is relatively recent is the growth of violence, linked to the situation in Syria and Iraq, and which has served to aggravate the problem”

“What is relatively recent is the growth of violence, linked to the situation in Syria and Iraq, and which has served to aggravate the problem”, maintains Koopmans. Other studies claim that between 10% and 15% of EU Muslims are prepared to use violence to defend their faith.

Although violence does not necessarily form part of this ideology, hostility towards other out-groups including homosexuals, Jews, and Westerners (in the case of Muslims) or Muslims (in the case of Christians) is evident. As a whole, Muslims are shown to be more hostile towards the three out-groups mentioned above, with between 25% and 30% rejecting these groups. Christian hostility is not as much as 5%.

However, independently, Christian fundamentalists show greater hostility towards Muslims (more than 50%) and towards Jews (between 30 and 35% of Christian fundamentalists were revealed to be hostile). In the case of Islamic fundamentalists, more than 70% of followers feel hostility towards homosexuals, Jews and Westerners.

Religious fundamentalism is closely linked to hostility towards other out-groups,” says Koopmans. But social and economic levels also have a bearing. Individuals with a high social and economic status are more tolerant and less xenophobic.

Reference:

Koopmans, Ruud. “Religious Fundamentalism and Hostility against Out-groups: A Comparison of Muslims and Christians in Western Europe” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 41(1): 33-57 DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2014.935307, 2 January 2015

The first children’s programs were broadcast in accordance with school timetables, that is to say, on Thursday and Saturday afternoons when children didn’t have class. It was not until 1964 when the airing times for children’s programmes increased during the weekdays.

The main aim of TVE was to entertain children, although they did not miss the opportunity to “educate”

Children’s programmes were at the mercy of the dictatorship

The different types of programs shown during the Franco regime coincided with the “attempt to teach children to be good citizens,” highlights professor Paz. According to the author, Catholicism was directly present in Lecciones de catecismo (1959 – ‘Lessons on how to prepare for the Catechesis’) and, indirectly in “each and every one of the means through parabolas, education, recommendations, etc”.

Patriotism was spread by means of exemplary lives: “Spaniards, of both the present and the past, should be a benchmark for all good Spaniards professionally and personally. Examples were always provided in order to show that Spanish inventions, sport, music triumphed all over the world,” added the researcher.

Tradition overpowered modern ideals in this period: folk music, fables, children’s songs, classical tales, regional dances, traditional games, circus, puppets… “It was as if the television aimed to maintain and spread the word on popular culture and convey a television culture,” remarks Paz.

The aforesaid observations and conclusions were gathered in the study, published in the ‘European Journal of Communication’, by María Antonia Paz. 122 children’s program transmitted on TVE (Spanish National Television) from 1958 –when information media on television programmes started to appear– until the 20th November 1975 –after Franco passed away– were analysed.

The formats changed little by little: from imitating radio programs to creating new means adapted to the television

According to the study, the main aim of TVE was to entertain children, although they did not miss the opportunity to “educate” children with scientific or musical contents. However, children’s programs prepared its audience for the volatile economical uncertainty as well as the industrialization, urbanisation and cultural modifications within the country, with a certain degree of liberalization after the end of the Franco regime.

‘Not suitable for adults’

In 1959, children’s programs started with No apto para mayores (‘Not suitable for adults’), which was broadcast on Saturdays. Recreo (1960 – ‘Break’) and Chavales (1961 – ‘Kids’) were more successful and entertained both children and adults on Thursday afternoons. The main characters –Boliche and Chapinete– started their careers on the radio and later prevailed on the television.

The fantastic Antonia character exerted power over girls under Franco. / BNE

From 1958 to 1963, “children were considered as small fry, young adults and, they were conferred small problems and worries, similar to what adults could experience,” emphasises Professor María Antonia Paz. The formats changed little by little: from imitating radio programs to creating new means adapted to the television.

From 1964, the 55 second advertisement Vamos a la cama marked a milestone: children became a differentiated audience. During this period, programmes began to be distinguished with regard to age. Jardilín (1966-1968 – ‘Little garden’), for instance, was for younger children. There were two types of programs for teenagers: the first to solve problems such as Habla contigo (1967-1970 – ‘Speak to yourself’), which rose awareness on religious conflicts and the second to listen to modern music.

There were also gender differences such as Santi, botones de hotel (1965 – ‘Santi, the hotel bellboy') which was about a brave, adventurous, daring young boy. Antoñita la fantástica (1967 – ‘Fantastic Antonia’), was a girls program about “a modern ingenious girl who was concerned about her physical appearance and full of fantasies,” describes the researcher. There were other foreign boy’s series such as the western Bonanza, which was highly popular among children back then.

From 1969 to 1975, TVE focused on pure entertainment and educational and religious programmes disappeared as a consequence of the law on religious freedom in 1967. “Television joined the cause for modernisation and reflected the new social and economical reality of the country,” highlights the authors.

Sesame Street’ reached new levels with regard to children’s programs

The most successful programme was emitted for four years (from 1974 to 1979). It was called Un globo, dos globos, tres globos (‘One balloon, two balloons, and three balloons’). This program and ‘Sesame Street’ reached new levels with regard to children’s programs. “The latter and other programs, such as Con vosotros (‘With you all’), were the daily television offer for some time. La Guagua (‘The bus’) was aired in the mornings and Saturday evenings were for children. On Sundays, primarily sports programmes were transmitted,” remarks Paz.

According to the author, “these programmes were the first and the only memory of various generations of Spanish television which entertained and, socially, culturally and emotionally educated its audience with its programmes, presenters and characters”.

Referencia bibliográfica:

Paz, María Antonia; Martínez, Lizette “Children's programming on Television Espanola under Franco (1958-1975)” European Journal of Communication 29(4): 465-479 agosto de 2014 DOI: 10.1177/0267323114530359

Biopolitics refers to the ways in which political powers governing the lives of people as biological beings

Footprint of the Roman state

Biopolitics, the central subject of this research, refers to the various ways in which political powers regulate the lives of people as biological beings. As living beings we are endowed a series of biological functions (sexuality, nutrition, reproduction, etc.) subject to a variety of systems of social and cultural norms. The legal and political aspects can be related, for example, to reproduction itself or to descendants, which are integral to the need for a system for the transmission and inheritance of goods in a system based on private property.

Taking as a case study the territory of the eastern Spanish plateau and the mark left by the Roman government in its expansion throughout the Mediterranean region, this research attempts to explain how, through the region’s biopolitical architecture, “the ruling powers, the political institutions and the social structures influenced the people’s daily lives,” explains Bermejo. In order to respond to these questions, the study uses comparative analysis of various types of sources (archeological, epigraphic, legal, etc.). By comparing this information, it is possible to develop a historical characterization of the impact that some of these mechanisms of social coercion had on the inhabitants of the region, as well as their implication in the different areas of everyday life.

In order to carry out this research, spatial syntax was applied and the rules of private law under the empire (private property, matrimony, inheritance, the statute of citizenship, and fiscal law) were studied; local epigraphy (the main textual source of information regarding the lives of the inhabitants of this territory) was examined. In the same way that linguistic syntax studies the order of the words in a sentence, spatial syntax is a type of architectural analysis that seeks to “study the social dynamic that underlies the spatial organization of the different rooms or areas within a building: the shapes of jails, universities, public schools, hospitals or homes are also conditioned by the social function that such buildings are meant to fulfill,” states Bermejo, who is a member of UC3M’s Cultura y Tecnología (Institute of Culture and Technology).

The strategy of social control of the Roman Empire included a series of ideological elements and economic status

Archaeological record

There are numerous and diverse reasons that the biopolitics of the era of the Roman Empire can be considered relevant to present-day society, according to this researcher. The main influences can be seen in private law: “A large part of it has been inherited from these concepts, from the legal framework developed by the Imperial Roman government. And in different aspects of how our social life is regulated, in the type of marriage, in the forms of inheritance.”

The Roman government’s biopolitical strategy of social control included not only legal mechanisms, but also government ideological and economic apparatus that, in reality, “are easier to see if we take into account the archeological register, the architecture and the material culture produced by the inhabitants of this region,” comments Bermejo, who includes these and other conclusions in his book.

The researcher comments that he finds himself at the beginning of a much more ambitious project designed to analyze the biopolitical impact of the Roman Empire on its subjects. In the coming years, he plans to systematically apply this method of research to the study of more than 2,000 cases spread throughout different areas of the Roman Mediterranean (Southern France, Germany, Italy, North Africa, etc.). “This project will allow for the creation of a ‘map’ of the impact of the apparatus of the Roman government on people’s lives on different scales: geographic, urban, social, etc.” he concludes.

Reference:

Bermejo Tirado, Jesús. Arqueología Biopolítica: "The spatial syntax of domestic Roman architecture in the eastern Meseta". Madrid: Ediciones de la Ergástula, S.L., 2014. 198 págs. 8494179667

“The volume of earth exploited is much greater than previously thought and the works performed are impressive, having achieved actual river captures, which makes this valley extremely important in the context of Roman mining in the north-east of the Iberian Peninsula,” as Javier Fernández Lozano, geologist at the University of Salamanca and co-author of this study published in the ‘Journal of Archaeological Science’, tells SINC.

The specialists consider that the systems for the transport and storage of water were copied from those already existing in North Africa, where the Egyptians had been employing them for centuries. Some details of the methodology used appear in texts such as those of the Pliny the Elder, the Roman procurator in charge of overseeing mining in Hispania.

“We have established that the labour that went into extracting the resource until its exhaustion was so intensive that after removing the gold from surface sediments, operations continued until reaching the rocks with the auriferous quartz veins underneath,” explains Fernández Lozano.

The researcher stresses that the real discoverer was the LiDAR technology: “Unlike traditional aerial photography, this airborne laser detection system allows the visualisation of archaeological remains under vegetation cover or intensely ploughed areas”.

From aircraft or drones

LiDAR comprises a laser sensor which scans the ground from an aircraft or drone with geographical references provided by GPS ground stations. The data obtained is represented by point clouds, which are processed with a piece of software to construct a cartographic model where the forms are identified, such as old reservoirs or channels.

This technology was developed by NASA in the sixties to analyse the retreating sea ice in the Arctic and composition of the oceans. Since then their use has been extended to topography, cadastral mapping, geology and archaeology. According to the authors, the study of Roman mining in the Eria valley is the first piece of ‘geo-archaeology’ performed with LiDAR in Spain.

“Our intention is to continue working with this technique to learn more about mineral mining in the Roman Empire and clear up any mysteries such as why Rome abandoned such a precious resource as gold from one day to the next,” concludes the researcher.

References:

Javier Fernández-Lozano, Gabriel Gutiérrez-Alonso, Miguel Fernández-Morán. “Using airborne LiDAR sensing technology and aerial orthoimages to unravel roman water supply systems and gold works in NW Spain (Eria valley, León)”. Journal of Archaeological Science, 12 November 2014 (on line).

In order to reach these conclusions the study analyzed two decisive factors: on one hand, those that were related to characteristics of the family environment, the parents’ occupations and the distribution of gender roles within the home; and on the other hand, the child’s own psychological attributes, particularly his/her degree of motivation at school and his/her own self-esteem.

In families with a traditional division of household chores, boys aspire to 'male' professions

Parents’ behavior regarding household chores influences how children learn roles that are more sex-appropriate. In families with a traditional division of household tasks, boys aspire to professions that are habitually masculine. However, this conclusion is not applicable to females, since girls from families who are also traditional in respect to gender roles are not more inclined to want a job that is typical of their sex, according to the researchers’ observations.

Parents socioeconomic resources

Additional evidence found is that the parents’ socio-economic resources affect the professional ambition of their children. The scientists have observed that daughters who have parents with university studies tend to aspire to reach the height of occupational hierarchy: CEO’s, managers…which are occupations “where there are fewer women, and as such, they are less typical of their sex,” explained professor Javier Polavieja, who has published the study in the journal Social Forces together with Lucinda Platt, professor of Social Policy and Sociology at the London School of Economics.

As for sons of university educated parents, researchers concluded that they have occupations less typical than those held by other members of their sex, and that, according to Polavieja, explains why “ parents’ education carries with it more egalitarian values that the children learn at home”.

Grls from families who are also traditional in respect to gender roles are not more inclined to want a job that is typical of their sex

Regarding observable psychological attributes, the research focused particularly on motivation and self esteem. Concretely, self-esteem is a factor that “ is clearly important, above all in the case of boys,” the sociologist noted. According to the study, boys who have a higher level of self-esteem aspire to occupations less typical of their sex and “have a greater capacity to go against gender norms”, the professor concluded.

In order to carry out this study, the researchers analyzed the occupational aspirations of children of both sexes between the ages of 11 and 15. The data used, from the British Household Panel Survey, corresponds to a sample of 1,693 boys and 1,667 girls, who were surveyed on repeated occasions from childhood until holding their first significant jobs as adults.

A research project at the University of Santiago de Compostela (USC) has studied how having a wide vocabulary influences cognitive reserve in the elderly.

As Cristina Lojo Seoane, from the USC, co-author of the study published in the journal ‘Anales de Psicología’ (Annals of Psychology), explains to SINC: “We focused on level of vocabulary as it is considered an indicator of crystallised intelligence (the use of previously acquired intellectual skills). We aimed to deepen our understanding of its relation to cognitive reserve.”

The research team chose a sample of 326 subjects over the age of 50 – 222 healthy individuals and 104 with mild cognitive impairment. They then measured their levels of vocabulary, along with other measures such as their years of schooling, the complexity of their jobs and their reading habits.

They also analysed the scores they obtained in various tests, such as the vocabulary subtest of the ‘Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale’ (WAIS) and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test.

“With a regression analysis we calculated the probability of impairment to the vocabulary levels of the participants,” Lojo Seoane continues.

The results revealed a greater prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in participants who achieved a lower vocabulary level score.

“This led us to the conclusion that a higher level of vocabulary, as a measure of cognitive reserve, can protect against cognitive impairment,” the researcher concludes.

References:

Cristina Lojo-Seoane, David Facal, Onésimo Juncos-Rabadán y Arturo X. Pereiro. “El nivel de vocabulario como indicador de reserva cognitiva en la evaluación del deterioro cognitivo ligero”, Anales de psicología 30 (3): 1115-1121, octubre de 2014.

The authors of the study analysed the factors behind the fact that this separatist sentiment has doubled in Catalonia in recent years.

This particular effect of the crisis in Catalonia would not have come to pass without the pre-existence of a clear, alternative national plan in Catalonia

As Guillem Rico, who, together with Robert Liñeira, co-authors the study published in the journal ‘South European Society and Politics’, tells SINC: “The Statute of Autonomy sentence is what puts Catalonia’s political system in a new context. However, we believe that this change acts together with the more general economic and political crisis. The result is that people’s dissatisfaction with the state of affairs achieves expression, in part, via the independence movement. Spain is now an increasingly less attractive option for growing sectors of the population.”

Furthermore, according to the researchers, this particular effect of the crisis in Catalonia would not have come to pass without the pre-existence of a clear, alternative national plan in Catalonia, or without the institutional crisis related to the failed process of the Statute.

“With the data available, it is not easy to determine exactly when to place the turning point resulting in separatism becoming the preferred option in Catalonian public opinion. In any case, this did not happen before 2010, when the Constitutional Court’s sentence against the Statute was announced, and it increased its scope in 2012 with the first large-scale Diada demonstration, when Convergència i Unió (CIU, Convergence and Union) committed to a referendum,” they affirm.

For the experts, it is not so much that the drawing up of the Statute boosted the independence movement; rather, both processes were a reflection of a growing demand for self-government.

The authors argue that: “A new Statute could have satisfied these demands, but it is precisely its failure that sparks off a change in strategy by sectors that advocate increased self-government.”

Furthermore, the competition between CiU and Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC, the Republican Left of Catalonia), – as well as that of other parties that appear as the process goes on – intensifies the positions. “Especially important is the central role that ERC, until then the only pro-independence formation, gains thanks to the parliamentary arithmetic during the preparation and passing of the new Statute,” the researchers add.

Moderate nationalism intensifies

The latest polls indicate that the population that feels “more Catalan than Spanish” – as opposed to those who feel “more or only Spanish” or “only Catalan” – is the sector that has most clearly changed its position towards secessionism. CiU sympathisers are much more enthusiastic about independence than they were in the past.

“Secessionism is growing amongst those who feel only Catalan, where it already enjoyed majority support, and those who feel more Catalan than Spanish, where it did not but now does. Although it has also grown in other groups, the independence movement is only the preferred choice for the former,” the researchers comment.

Additionally, the study highlights the fact that the latest regional elections boasted the historical maximum participation, even exceeding the preceding general elections. “This proves that issues of the utmost importance are being settled regionally and this is being perceived by the people,” Rico concludes.

As regards the matter of Catalonia’s growing distance from the rest of Spain (whether within or outside it), the data from the polls undertaken for this study show no clear sign so far that popular support for independence is diminishing.

“The next steps of the key actors involved are still unclear, but these will be crucial to discerning the evolution of the secessionist wave and the parties’ electoral fates,” the study finally underlines.

References:

Guillem Rico y Robert Liñeira. “Bringing Secessionism into the Mainstream: The 2012 Regional Election in Catalonia”, South European Society and Politics 19 (2): 257-280, 2014. DOI:10.1080/13608746.2014.910324.

Insufficient data

Regarding this final point, figures can vary from 200 to 13,000 cases and reliable data is only available when arrests have been made. The main sources for information are the Police and the Civil Guard, whose reports are compiled jointly at the Interior Ministry’s Organized Crime Intelligence Center (Centro de Inteligencia contra el Crimen Organizado del Ministerio del Interior). “These data are alarmingly insufficient, particularly when we refer to trafficking for labor exploitation or for organ trafficking, which are almost invisible in Spain,” indicates Marugán.

Due to its characteristics, the problem of human trafficking poses tremendous difficulties for Spanish governments, administrations and social organizations. “In this scenario, the work done by NGOs is especially interesting, because they are the ones who work with the victims on a daily basis and who are best able to see their needs and difficulties, as well as the failures in the system of detection and protection,” comment the authors of the report. For this reason, while working on this project they have worked intensely with these social organizations as well as with the district attorney’s office, police forces and government administrations.

The study was carried out using an interdisciplinary approach, that is, from the fields of law, political science and sociology. This last field contributed to determining the profile of the victims of trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation in Spain: adult women, most of whom come from Romania, Brazil, Paraguay and Nigeria.

The Spanish model

The Spanish model can be characterized by the following three features: the main focus of the study on trafficking for sexual exploitation; the main interest of public policy on punishment, as only recently have prevention and protection of the victims begun to be considered; the advances in legislation, thanks to internationally adopted obligations. “In Spain, for example, we have gone from a situation (previous to 1999) of crime policy that identified prostitution with trafficking, to a different situation (starting with the I Plan de Acción 2002-2003 and especially since 2005) where victims began to receive greater legal protection,” comments another of the report’s authors, Itziar Gómez Fernández, of UC3M’s Instituto de Derecho Público Comparado “Manuel García Pelayo” (Institute for Comparative Public Law).

“In this field, legislation that is exclusively repressive is inappropriate, and there is still very little public policy aimed at prevention and protection for the victims, although this type of focus is being used more and more, which is a hopeful sign,” comments another researcher from the same Institute, Carmen Pérez González. According to her, a new framework protocol should be adopted, and it should include a set of measures aimed at both preventing and prosecuting trafficking as well as effectively protecting, helping and compensating the victims.

Transnational Treatment

The subject of human trafficking must be treated on a transnational level, with the participation of international institutions and cooperation from the countries of origin, transit and destination. Therefore, one of the most important aspects of this research is its international dimension, as it involves researchers from five European countries. Along with UC3M, participants in the study included the Centro de Estudios Sociales de Portugal, which directed the study, the Polish Institute for Public Affairs, the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart (Italy), the Université Libre of Brussels (Belgium) and the University of Oradea (Romania). The report consists mainly of two sections: one on legislation and public policy and the other on the quantitative dimension of the problem.

The study includes a list of ten basic recommendations for attacking this problem; among them are improving the mechanisms for cooperation among administrations, revising the current legal classification of this crime in the Penal Code (art. 177), reviewing the workings of the internment centers for foreigners or the border crossings to avoid the possible double victimization of those being trafficked, and writing a manual for the professionals of the social communication media. This manual, which would help journalists to raise awareness with regard to this phenomenon, could include the following specific recommendations, according to the researchers: use the concept of human trafficking (which is not habitually used), separate the concept of trafficking from prostitution and illegal immigration and, finally, expose trafficking used for labor exploitation, because the focus is usually on the sexual components of exploitation and the labor component is downplayed, making the economic benefits of this other type of prostitution invisible.

Further information:

The fight against trafficking in human being in EU: promoting legal cooperation and victim’s protection. Project funded by the European Commission’s Commissary for Internal Affairs Program for the Prevention of and Fight against Criminal Activity.

“The social and political consequences of the war changed the traditional gender stereotypes and gave way to a new modern woman, who was not limited to living in the private setting of the home. However, when the cities were rebuilt after the war, it was as if it had never happened”, Graciela Padilla Castillo, co-author of the study and member of the Feminist Research Institute at the Complutense University of Madrid explained to Sinc.

According to the researchers, most treatises overlooked the figure of women and the work done by those during World War I who remained on the rearguard, “but not at all in the background”, added Javier Rodríguez Torres, of the University of Castilla-La Mancha and co-author of the study.

The war halted some of progress achieved previously, but also challenged the existing concept of femininity

The decisive step for women’s rights would not arrive until 1947, when the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women created a draft with the intention of it being a legal instrument that united the rights of men and women.

“Many women lived in the shadow of their husbands in this period, because even their work and progress had to be conceded to the latter so that the man published them and not the woman”, said Rodríguez.

The research is focussed on the countries involved in the conflict: Germany, Great Britain and France, since they were the countries most affected by the war.

“Until wartime, progress had been made towards new rights for women, such as universal suffrage and education. With the outbreak of war, this was brought to a halt. Curiously, there was a break with patriarchal traditions, but after the war, it was vital to rebuild cities and attend to the wounded and mutilated soldiers, and this became an obstacle for many things, amongst them the situation of women”, highlighted Padilla.

Women in the trenches

Data from the Henry Dunant Institute indicate that over 5,000 years of history, more than 14,000 wars have been fought, which have been responsible for the deaths of 5 billion human beings.

“Women, as part of the civilian population and overlooked in terms of decision-making, have become, above all, victims and in general they are the people who, silently, in periods of war, guaranteed the survival of their families and even their communities”, as explained in the study.

This war mobilised around 65 million soldiers in all the nations involved and caused the rearguard to be bereft of manpower, meaning that industries had to resort to women to sustain production.

For example, the research emphasises that 430,000 French women and 800,000 British women went from being housewives to employed workers and many even took part in the war.

“In Germany, without participating directly in combat units, they contributed to the war effort, working in arms factories and carrying out various tasks near the battle front: supplies, ammunition depots, etc. Not long before the war ended, almost 68,000 women had replaced the men who were on the front”, they said.

According to Padilla, “women demonstrated that they could perform completely new roles. Before the Great War, it was said that women could not carry out the same work due to physical and psychological differences and this perception was fortunately broken”.

WWI mobilized about 65 million soldiers and had to use female labor to maintain production

In England, women also participated in the war as paid or unpaid civilians. In fact, 80,000 women enrolled as auxiliaries in the female units of the armed forces. Many others served as nurses.

In Russia, the first exclusively female combat unit, the Women's Battalion of Death, was formed and it comprised 2,000 volunteers trained by Maria Leontievna Bochkareva, better known by her nickname, Yashka.

There was also progress in Spain, but very far removed from that of the countries involved in the conflict. “If we were going to compare it with our civil war – said the expert – there is practically no relationship. Similar cases were seen only in education, but in the First World War, we were quite far behind other countries. There were no female commandos or soldier units. Or if they existed, we have found no evidence of them in our research”.

At this time, the Spanish had already lost the last territories of their colonial empire, and as such, they were removed from the continental affairs that occupied the diplomatic keys of this period. “It was a small power with reduced interests in the north of Africa, in the shadow of the colonial interests of the European powers”.

Change of the female stereotype

World War I brought with it the first modern concepts about women and society: the emergence, for the first time in the history of Europe, of a mixed society.

Women occupied men’s positions and were able to maintain a public and private life that promoted their personal and professional development. Likewise, a break with the customs of the era caused substantial changes in family and marital relationships and even aesthetic changes that continued to boost their emancipation.

“The best example of this political change was in Great Britain. There, the suffragettes lost battles with parliament for the right to vote fourteen times. However, their empowerment as a result of their contribution to the Great War was decisive in obtaining it”, the researchers stress. They finally achieved it in 1928.

Spain would follow this example with its Constitution of 1931, during the Second Republic. Spanish women exercised their right to vote for the first time in the 1933 elections. This also supports the idea that the country did not participate directly in the Great War but was involved in it ideologically, with its negative and positive consequences, such as in achieving the vote for women. Franco’s dictatorship nullified it again until 1975.

Referencia bibliográfica:

Graciela Padilla Castillo and Javier Rodríguez Torres. “La I Guerra Mundial en la retaguardia: la mujer protagonista”, Historia y Comunicación Social 18: 191-206, 2013.

The Prisoner’s Dilemma, to cooperate or not to cooperate

The experiment, which is presented as a game via a web interface developed by researchers at the Instituto BIFI of the Universidad de Zaragoza, was carried out using 168 subjects between 10 and 87 years of age who had been chosen at random during the DAU Barcelona Board Games Festival (Festival DAU Barcelona de Juegos de Mesa), which was held in Barcelona’s “Fábrica de Creación Fabra i Coats” in December of 2012. The experiment was part of the Barcelona Lab platform, promoted by the Dirección de Creatividad e Innovación del Institut de Cultura de Barcelona (ICUB – Management of Creativity and Innovation at the Barcelona Institute of Culture). The team installed a portable laboratory with a dozen computers and took volunteers from among the Festival’s visitors until a statistically relevant number of subjects was reached. They repeated the experiment later in order to confirm the results, which were corroborated by 53 twelve- and thirteen-year-old students from the Colegio Jesuïtes Casp de Barcelona. A virtual version of the Prisoner’s Dilemma was used in the study; the problem comes from game theory and is used as a model for studying human behavior and, in this case, cooperation among people.

The Prisoner’s Dilemma plays a central role in this experiment, which continues the work done in previous studies by some of the same researchers

The Prisoner’s Dilemma plays a central role in this experiment, which continues the work done in previous studies by some of the same researchers (see http://nectunt.bifi.es), because it is a way to “ask” people how cooperative they are. The participants were divided into groups of four based on different age ranges. There was a control group, as well. During the 25 consecutive rounds they had to choose between cooperating and not cooperating, receiving different rewards for each action. Rewards for the people who are interacting come when they collaborate; if one collaborates and the other doesn’t, the latter receives a greater reward than former, who collaborates; but if nobody collaborates, then nobody receives any reward. The participants had information regarding their opponents’ actions and the rewards received by each one. When the rounds finished, the total number of points obtained by each participant was transformed into money, which they received immediately (in the case of minors, their parents received it).

More unpredictable decisions by young people

The most remarkable results of the experiment show clearly differentiated behavior in the youngest age range. “In general, people consider what others have done when they collaborate, but our experiments show that adults also consider their own previous actions; that is to say, there is a different strategy in the way they act and there is a tendency to end up cooperating; the way they act is more predictable and it helps a bit in keeping up the cooperation,” explains Yamir Moreno. However, the behavior of the youngest participants does not follow this pattern. “According to our study, kids are more volatile in their decisions; they don’t follow a definite strategy, and they are essentially conditional cooperators, because they pay more attention to those around them. Kids’ tendency is to watch what the other players are doing and react according to their response, instead of being conditioned by their own past actions. This makes it difficult for a cooperative environment to be generated,” explains Mario Gutiérrez-Roig.

Those who are over 65 seem to be more cooperative than those in other age groups

On the opposite side, there is another peculiarity in the results, points out Professor Anxo Sánchez: “Those who are over 65 seem to be more cooperative than those in other age groups, although in this case we don’t have a great deal of statistical information and we would have to test it further.” This suggests, as another study indicated, that “lowering the retirement age may not be beneficial for companies and it might be interesting to find ways to keep this group working or in an alternate situation where they can continue to be cooperative,” indicates Sánchez.

In the second experiment, with students from the Jesuïtes Casp School, which was carried out to corroborate the results, the conclusions were the same. “These kids were more cooperative, but their behavior remained equally unpredictable”, recalls Carlos Gracia-Lázaro. “These results lead us to think that there is an evolutionary and cultural component throughout the life cycle, and that being prone to cooperate is a quality that can be learned,” emphasizes Gracia-Lázaro.

The results also hold implications with regard to strategies that can be used to foment collaboration among this age group. “It would be necessary to develop specific strategies, different from those used with adults, to promote the transition toward more persistent pro-social conduct and to help kids understand the need for a level of perseverance. Applying this to the area of education, for example, this could be translated into establishing clearer rules in group projects to facilitate the students’ coming to agreements that would be beneficial for everyone,” explains Josep Perelló.

In previous experiments it had already been observed that children between 6 and 10 years of age develop a sense of cooperation and this study pinpoints the moment in which this changes: adolescence. “The causes are not clear, but we think that what may happen is that in the earlier phases they begin to develop a ‘theory of the other’, as the psychologists call it, which allows them to empathize and be altruistic; however, as they get older they could have a phase in which they believe that understanding the other puts them in a position to take advantage of him,” explains Anxo Sánchez. “The idea is a bit intuitive, so it would be necessary to perform further experiments to clarify the causes of this change,” points out Yamir Moreno.

A unique space to do experiments on human behavior

This study, carried out in the unique space that is the DAU is the result of collaboration between the research team and the ICUB, which is the result of the creation of the Barcelona Lab and the Ciencia Ciudadana (Citizen Science) group. Thus, thanks to the collaboration of the OpenSystems, COSNET Lab and GISC groups, it has been possible to obtain a more representative sample than what is habitually used in behavioral studies.

Children between 6 and 10 years of age develop a sense of cooperation and this study pinpoints the moment in which this changes: adolescence

As researcher Josep Perelló explains, “studies of this kind normally use samples made up of social science and economics students, with what that implies as far as the subjects’ profile of having a university level education and a certain economic level. Furthermore,” the expert continues, “they could even be influenced by the very economic theories that they learn in class. Our sample is more diverse in terms of age and socio-educational level, which makes our conclusions more general. The idea is that the DAU Barcelona (directed by Oriol Comas and organized by the ICUB) can also be an experimental space where it would be possible to do studies on human behavior through games with and for society,” notes Perelló. “The idea is to facilitate experimental laboratory activities where the public’s participation is important, and this scientific article is the first relevant result that has come out of this collaboration,” explains Perelló. “Studies such as this one allow the public to participate in scientific studies from the very beginning and they also help to explain how science works and show the different phases of the scientific method,” concludes Mario Gutiérrez-Roig.

Further information:

Mario Gutiérrez-Roig, Carlos Gracia-Lázaro, Josep Perelló, Yamir Moreno, Ángel Sánchez "Transition from reciprocal cooperation to persistent behavior in social dilemmas at the end of adolescence". Nature Communications. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5362.

Researchers from the Rey Juan Carlos University (URJC) in Madrid have compared it to the British model of advertising self-regulation, which is considered to be an international benchmark. The objective was to identify the strengths and weaknesses in terms of autonomy, effectiveness, financing and coverage.

“It is the first time that anyone has analysed and shown the deficiencies of the advertising self-regulation system in Spain which, supposedly, looks out for the consumer against advertising that infringes upon laws and codes of conduct governing the sector”, Clara Muela from the Rey Juan Carlos University reports to SINC. The article is published in the journal Communication & Society.

Muela and her colleague from the URJC Salvador Perelló also took into account the criteria and parameters that the EU considers crucial for an effective model of advertising self-regulation.

“As a result of this work we have been able to establish the deficiencies and their cause, which shows Autocontrol to be a very lacking and questionable system, whose structure and management bodies hamper the objective and effective defence of consumer rights against any type of illegal advertising”, says Muela.

Sanctions that are not complied with

Highly critical of the current system, this study points out that the main weak points of the Autocontrol system are found to relate to two basic competences: effectiveness and autonomy.

“With regard to the first, the organisation lacks a system to control advertising that infringes upon codes of conduct and prevailing legislation and especially considering that the Spanish population is so little acquainted with the organisation and its duties. This ineffectiveness is even clearer in the lack of monitoring of compliance with resolutions when there are consumer complaints, given that some advertisers do not comply with their sanctions”, the researchers point out.

On the other hand, the prior consultation provided by Autocontrol has increased the number of users in recent years and it has become a significant source of income. “However, its effectiveness is yet to be demonstrated, given that some of the cases were reviewed and sanctioned after having been approved”, explains the researcher.

This approval meant that the advertiser, before making the advert public, consulted Autocontrol on whether the advert complied with the law and the codes of conduct. “It is odd that then there are complaints and they are resolved against a previously favourable report”.

What is most striking is that in Spain the watchdog monitoring service has still not been applied, an activity included in some systems of self-regulation, as in the United Kingdom, which means they themselves monitor media advertising and if they deem adverts to be illegal, act on their own initiative and lodge a complaint. “It would be particularly interesting for television and radio, the two types of media with the largest audiences and where dishonest advertising has the greatest impact on consumers”, stresses Muela.

Creation of an independent body

In line with the European model of good practices and using their results, the researchers have proposed tools for improvement towards an independent and pro-active body.

“Generally, when Autocontrol receives a complaint, the final sanction is usually the suspension and withdrawal of the advertisement. Due to the nature of the adverts, in the majority of cases this resolution does not hold any dissuasive value, because the damage is already done and often the advert is no longer broadcast once the organisation has resolved the complaint”, the researcher points out.

Another failure, according to Muela, is in autonomy. Although the majority of the advertising codes are very similar between countries with these systems, the researchers recommend that codes consider the point of view of people affected by advertising, like consumers and different social organisations.

“If a system of elections was introduced for the Board of Directors it would achieve better credibility and transparency. It is necessary to avoid a conflict of interests”, Muela emphasises.

Lastly, according to the study, the fact that Autocontrol is financed by the same industry that creates, produces and broadcasts advertising, significantly reduces the credibility of the organisation.

“It is difficult to be impartial and neutralise possible conflicts of interest when the leaders of the organisation choose the board that will review what is supposedly illegal do so with the advertising of competitors and even their own work”, they conclude.

References:

Clara Muela y Salvador Perelló. “Advertising self-regulation. A comparative analysis between the United Kingdom and Spain” Communication & Society 3 (27): 1-18, 2014.

Frida Kahlo was closely tied to photography. Through posing, the Mexican artist constructed a mindset in which one recognizes many of the aesthetic elements characteristic of her work. After all, for Kahlo, photography would be an evocative tool for producing images. “The construction and use of her own image as raw material for her work is one of the fundamental principles of the Mexican’s work,” notes Nieves Limón, who divulged some results of her research in an article published in the journal Área Abierta.

Specifically, Nieves Limón, from the UC3M Department of Journalism and Audiovisual Communication, focused her study on a collection of images in which Frida Kahlo appears as a model. The frequency with which she posed for different photographers has resulted in a large number of very important photographs for the more than 36 professionals that took them, but they are especially significant for the history of Kahlo’s artistic production: nearly 800 over more than 40 years. To carry out her work, the researcher collaborated with and had access to the collections of the Frida Kahlo Museum and the National Photography Library of Mexico.

Although she did not take the photographs, Kahlo conceived and planned them. This work of characterizing the artist, which in some cases the UC3M researcher defines as “visual autobiographies,” articulates its own creative discourse which emphasizes the subversion of gender codes through the creative technique of “androgynous estrangement” or reflection on her national identity, the exaltation of popular culture, rural life, and a certain pre-Hispanic syncretism.

“The use of her own image as raw material for her work is one of the fundamental principles of the Mexican’s work,” says the author

Photography or Performance

In pondering her artistic identity, Frida Kahlo presents a key point about artistic production in general: she interprets her profession for the camera in an evidently artificial way, as a “disguised author.” Thus, as professor Limón notes, it poses a question of topicality in the world of contemporary art: Who is the author of the photograph, the one who presses the button on the camera or the one who poses in the image?

The photographs of Kahlo hold a certain performative status. The artist uses her body as a device which allows her to represent herself in different ways, and as a discursive tool for denaturing certain conventions. “In her work, one can appreciate a characteristic rituality of the current performance: the redundancy of her practices, the restaging of her poses, which denatures the everyday action, and the production of a corps of images elevated to a work of art,” said Nieves Limón.

Moreover, the artist from Coyoacán stands as “an important and innovative figure who challenges the fundamental theoretical suppositions of autobiographical practices,” occasionally showing her vulnerable corporality. She does so through a strong process-based component in the photography: serial, with narrative potential, multiple quality (collage) and with connections to other compositions. All in all, the photographs of Frida speak to us of her vital experiences: her pain, her relationships and her roles, and it is a privileged medium through which to learn about the human being that was the artist.

Reference:

Nieves Limón. “Frida Kahlo y el posado fotográfico”. Área Abierta nº28. Referencia: AA28.1103.141

One of the possible explanations for this null balance is that tourist profiles have changed, “they are here for less time and their air travel is cheaper, but above all, they spend less per day of their trip,” Rafael Myro, lead author of the study and professor at UCM, points out to SINC.

Due to these results, the experts advise that caution should be taken regarding economic policies that benefit low-cost airlines.

“As a general rule, encouraging this business model through subsidies does not lead to an increase in income per tourist, not even in the long-term, because it increases the number of tourists but decreases their average spending,” says Myro.

The economic strategies used to attract these airlines consist of promoting the use of airports with less air traffic and offering lower airport taxes and quality services making them more competitive.

According to the study, for example, in Catalonia, the Irish company Ryanair mainly operates in secondary airports like Gerona and Reus, facilities that were previously used by charter flights in summer. The reasons for working with smaller-scale airports are the low airport taxes and the “copious subsidies given by regional governments,” states Myro.

He continues that “the model of this company in working out of airports such as by Gerona is to exercise a monopoly which can be used to put pressure on regional governments. But in Spain, Ryanair has also extended itself to large airports, in Madrid and Barcelona, something that taxes, not so different between large and small airports, have facilitated”.

In Spain

In Spain, the percentage of tourists that arrive by plane on a low-cost flight is very high. “In 2010 it was 64% for the six autonomous regions that receive the most tourists and must have increased somewhat since then,” says the expert.

The rise of low-cost airlines (above all in Catalonia and Madrid), is observed in early 2004, the same year that the Irish airline started operating in Spain.

What is striking up until 2010 is the increase in tourism to Madrid, where the activity of low-cost airlines is not rated as among the highest but has grown more rapidly than in other autonomous regions.

In Catalonia on the other hand, the rise in French, Italian and British tourists travelling on Ryanair explains the increased influence of said company in the movement of tourists travelling low-cost.

The start of low-cost travel

It was during the seventies when the US company Southwest Airlines started this new business model based on lower prices which has currently taken hold across the world. This revolution in air travel has come as a threat to many traditional companies which have either disappeared or adapted by creating their own subsidiaries with more affordable prices.

This paradigm shift came to Europe via Ryanair, Easyjet and Air Berlin. Ryanair is the low-cost airline par excellence, with the most aggressive strategy.

Reference:

Rafael Myro Sánchez, Belén Rey Légidos y Pablo I. Hernández. Efecto de las compañías aéreas de bajo coste sobre el turismo internacional en España (1). Estudios Turísticos n. º 198 (4º T 2013)

According to OECD figures, leading innovative countries like the United States, Korea and Japan have over 75% of researchers employed in the private sector. This is how it is deduced that countries with more private investment play an important role in the area of innovation. In these cases, the business sector is the main source of R&D funding, with an investment that accounts for about 75%. In contrast, in 2009, only 43.4% of Spain’s R&D spending was financed by the private sector.

Based on the analysis of 10 indicators considered with regard to R&D spending, human resources for R&D, in-house innovation and research outputs and transfer, Navarra, the Basque Country, Catalonia and Madrid are the autonomous regions in the top positions. At the bottom of the scale are the Canary Islands, the Balearic Islands and Extremadura.

The study, which is part of the collection of studies and reports from the Conference of Social Councils, was presented last Wednesday at the UC3M. A round table discussion about the study was held, bringing together experts such as Joaquín Moya-Angeler, president of the Conference of Social Councils; Daniel Peña, Chancellor of the UC3M; Cristina Garmendia, the new president of Cotec and ex-minister of Science and Technology; and José Insenser, Technology and Innovation manager at Airbus Defence and Space.

After analyzing the situation of researchers in Spain, it is deduced that the unemployment rate for Ph.D.s in Spain is less than 15%, according to the 2013 EPA report, compared to the national average of around 26%. However, for Cristina Garmendia, it is necessary to make progress “on the cooperation of systems, open innovation, initiative within the companies themselves and recognizing the importance of people, who are more important than organizations, so that effort on R&D ends up increasing competitiveness.” Likewise, Daniel Peña, Chancellor of the UC3M, asserts that it is necessary to advance along the lines proposed by Garmendia to be able to generate trust in companies. He added that “the biggest problem with the Spanish university system is that there is no relation between results and funding.”

The social and government councils of Spanish universities are aware that it is necessary to secure more investment from the private sector to grow in research. This is why they are proposing a series of changes in their doctoral programs. They propose incorporating the private sector in the guidance, organization and planning of their doctoral studies, and strengthening cooperation between public and private institutions in the design of doctoral studies. Along thes lines, Joaquín Moya-Angeler highlights that it is necessary to adapt and bring the doctorate closer to the business world. Countries like the Netherlands, Germany and Denmark are good examples to follow in this aspect, as they have made similar structural changes in their doctoral systems, achieving greater involvement from the private sector with regard to R&D as a result.

Further information:

El empleo de los doctores en España y su relación con la I+D+i y los estudios de doctorado. Authors: Mónica Benito Bonito, Pilar Gil Torrubias, Rosario Romera Ayllón. Studies and Reports Collection. Conference of Social Councils of Spanish Universities. 2014. ISBN: 978-84-617-0190-2

An international team, led by the European Institute of Studies on Prevention (IREFREA) with headquarters in Mallorca, together with other European and Spanish universities (Oviedo, Santiago de Compostela and Valencia), has analysed the role that parents play at the time of determining the risk of their children using alcohol, tobacco and cannabis in six European countries: Sweden, the United Kingdom, Spain, Portugal, Slovenia and the Czech Republic.

The objective was to clarify the type of parent-child relationship that best protects children from taking drugs, using two variables: parental control and affection.

“Our results support the idea that extremes are not effective: neither authoritarianism nor absence of control and affection. A good relationship with children works well. In this respect, it can go hand in hand with direct control (known as ‘authoritative’ or democratic style) or not (style wrongly called ‘indulgent’),” Amador Calafat, main author of the study published in the journal ‘Drug and Alcohol Dependence’, declared to SINC.

Four family styles according to their relationship with their children

Classification of families is the result of combining the behaviours adopted by various degrees of demand and responsibility.

On the one hand, the authoritative model includes families that “give clear rules and affectionately and flexibly reason with the children when asking for their compliance”.

The authoritarian model coincides with the authoritative model in that both are demanding and controlling, but it differs in that mothers and fathers show less affection.

On the other hand, the fathers and mothers of the neglectful and indulgent models are characterised by their low level of control; however, the former are “scarcely affectionate” and the latter are “very emotional”.

The results of the study, which coincide throughout Europe, indicate that the indulgent and authoritative models are those that work best, both for substance use and in personal disorders. “For self-esteem and school performance, it is still better when parents operate with the indulgent style,” Calafat continued.

“This study allows a focus and common discussion in Europe in drug use prevention programmes,” added the researcher.

The results contrast with previous studies conducted in other cultural settings, where parental demand is “recommended” (mostly English-speakers from the USA) or “essential” (Asian cultures).

In total, 7,718 adolescents (3,774 males and 3,944 females), aged between 11 and 19, were interviewed. “From a global personal health perspective, the ‘authoritative’ and ‘indulgent’ parental styles equally protect against the use of drugs,” Calafat said.

Until now, this last observation was exclusively associated with Mediterranean and South American countries. “However we also see that it is valid for many European countries,” added the IREFREA researcher.

Referencia bibliográfica:

Amador Calafat, Fernando García, Montse Juan, Elisardo Becoña, José Ramón Fernández-Hermida. “Which parenting style is more protective against adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European context”. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 138, 185-192. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.02.705

The results of the study might be useful for designing policies related to the use of intermediaries in the supply of goods and public services

Passive attitude

To carry out the study, the researchers designed a laboratory experiment, given that analyzing these situations in real life is impossible. “Corrupt individuals, particularly, the officials would never participate, because it would be potentially dangerous for them,” remarked the experts. For this reason, what they did was to recreate a minor case of corruption in which a citizen must decide whether to offer a public official a bribe in exchange for moving up a hospital stay or receiving preferential treatment when arranging an appointment, while the public official decides whether or not to accept this dishonest proposal and the amount for which they would do it.

What the researchers did afterwards was to compare the results that are obtained when this negotiation is direct and when there is an intermediary who plays a passive role of simply passing the information and money. “Sincerely,” disclosed Drugov, “we did not expect that this type of intermediary would have any influence, but our results are there: their mere presence increases corruption.”

This might happen, among other reasons, because responsibility for actions is diluted. Even in countries with high rates of corruption, individuals normally have an ethic which makes them reluctant to participate in this sort of immoral action. However, note the researchers, in different contexts, it has been found that the existence of intermediaries reduces the feeling of guilt caused by bad actions. “Even in the case of intermediaries that are completely passive, negative feelings associated with corruption are reduced, which contributes towards more corruption,” they note.

The results of the study might be useful for designing policies related to the use of intermediaries in the supply of goods and public services. “Should the figure of the intermediary even be prohibited in these contexts? It is necessary to carefully examine the advantages and disadvantages of such a measure, because there are still many things to clarify in this respect,” said Drugov. For example, it would also be necessary to analyze the benefits that the use of honest intermediaries brings to the system.

Further information:

Title: Intermediaries in corruption: an experiment. Authors: Drugov, Mikhail; Hamman, John; Serra, Danila. Source: EXPERIMENTAL ECONOMICS, 17 (1):78-99; 10.1007/s10683-013-9358-8 MAR 2014.

Now the members of this controversial project are trying to go further and not only search for extraterrestrial signs, but also actively send messages from Earth (Active SETI) to detect possible extraterrestrial civilisations. Astrophysicists, such as Stephen Hawking, have already warned of the risk that this implies for humanity, since it could favour the arrival of beings with more advanced technology and dubious intentions.

The ethical and sociological implications of this proposal have been analysed by the neuro-psychologist Gabriel G. de la Torre, professor at the University of Cádiz and participant in previous projects such as Mars 500 or space psychology topical team project financed by the European Space Agency, who wonders: “Can such a decision be taken on behalf of the whole planet? What would happen if it was successful and ‘someone’ received our signal? Are we prepared for this type of contact?”

To answer these questions, the professor sent a questionnaire to 116 American, Italian and Spanish university students. The survey assessed their knowledge of astronomy, their level of perception of the physical environment, their opinion on the place that things occupy in the cosmos, as well as religious questions – for example, “do you believe that God created the universe?” – or on the likelihood of contact with extraterrestrials.

The results, published in the journal ‘Acta Astronautica’, indicate that, as a species, humanity is still not ready for trying to actively contact a supposed extraterrestrial civilisation, since people lack knowledge and preparation. For this reason, SETI researchers are recommended in this study to look for alternative strategies.

“This pilot study demonstrates that the knowledge of the general public of a certain education level about the cosmos and our place within it is still poor. Therefore, a cosmic awareness must be further promoted – where our mind is increasingly conscious of the global reality that surrounds us – using the best tool available to us: education,” De la Torre emphasised. ”In this respect, we need a new Galileo to lead this journey”.

It was deduced from the questionnaires, which will soon be available to everyone on line, that university students and the rest of society lack awareness on many astronomical aspects, despite the enormous progress of science and technology. It also revealed that the majority of people consider these subjects according to their religious belief and that they would rely on politicians in the event of a huge global-scale crisis having to be resolved.

“Regarding our relation with a possible intelligent extraterrestrial life, we should not rely on moral reference points of thought, since they are heavily influenced by religion. Why should some more intelligent beings be ‘good’?,” added the researcher, who believes that this matter should not be monopolized by a handful of scientists: “In fact, it is a global matter with a strong ethical component in which we must all participate”.

References:

Gabriel G. De la Torre. “Toward a new cosmic consciousness: Psychoeducational aspects of contact with extraterrestrial civilizations”. Acta Astronautica 94 (2): 577–583, 2014.

Researchers from the University of La Laguna (ULL) have applied a new technique based on genetic analysis to determine the sex of these bones of the indigenous peoples of the Canary Islands.

“We have determined the sex by genetic methods on 52 tibias belonging to a pre-hispanic population from the archaeological site of Punta Azul on the Island of El Hierro. The identification of 18 women and 34 men and the subsequent discrimination by combining various anthropometric variables, shows a high precision percentage of 94.2% in the diagnosis,” Alejandra Calderón Ordóñez, researcher at the ULL and co-author of the article published in the ‘Journal of Archaeological Science’, told SINC.

The anthropometric variables include a series of measurements which, when combined in a mathematical formula, enable the most probable sex to be assigned to incomplete archaeological remains.

“The problem”, adds the expert, “is that these functions vary between different populations and between the same populations over time, which means they are not always valid if they are applied to different populations to those for which they were carried out".

Sex determination through genetic procedures, on the other hand, has become a reliable reference technique given that it enables a correct diagnosis that can be compared with the measurable characteristics of male and female bones.

“Sex determination using this procedure is not always possible with all the bones discovered in an excavation given the state of preservation of the remains as well as the high cost involved in the procedure. Despite this, it is an essential tool,” she adds.

Measuring tibias and analysing DNA

With the remains from Punta Azul, the researchers used a fragment of the amelogenin gene. As Calderón explains, this gene is present in the X chromosome and in the Y chromosome however, there is a small deletion - a special type of chromosomal anomaly - in X, which makes it ideal for sex determination by DNA amplification.

“Taking into account the actual characteristics of the DNA in old remains, an initial real time quantitative analysis of the mitochondrial DNA was taken to verify the state of preservation of the samples,” she explained.

Only those in which the mitochondrial DNA could be amplified were selected to analyse the amelogenin gene. It has been confirmed that if there is no mitochondrial DNA (multiple copies found per cell), the results obtained from a nuclear DNA amplification such as amelogenin are not very reliable.

The amelogenin was analysed in 53 of a total of 59 tibias and positive results were obtained in 52. All this shows that the sample was well-preserved.

Also, the tibias were measured and the results were combined with the previous genetic analysis. “This research shows that by studying the amelogenin, discriminant functions can be created for a specific population, which can later be applied to other remains from that same population with a higher degree of reliability," outlined the scientist.

The importance of this lies in proving the usefulness of the amelogenin gene as a standard for gender identification. This opens the door to the creation of new functions for various populations, with different bones and even improving some of those that already exist. The method could be applied to other populations of different ages and ethnic origins.

To date, journeys through Paris, Vienna, Berlin, New York, Berne and Madrid have been published, suggesting to the visitor places historically connected to physics. The city of Barcelona has been included in the most recent edition.

“The reader who visits Paris, for example, will know where radium was discovered, and a visitor to Berlin will know where Einstein publicised his theory of general relativity. The journal’s editors -John S. Ridgen and Roger H. Stuewer - have compiled some of these articles in a book, ‘The Physical Tourist: A Science Guide for the Traveler’,” Xavier Roqué (Autonomous University of Barcelona) and Antoni Roca-Rosell (BarcelonaTech), the study’s authors, explained to SINC.

The article on Barcelona suggests four routes through the city and highlights other places in its metropolitan area.

Route 1: the Gothic Quarter

The Plaça del Rei square, one of the urban spaces in the medieval period fostering the cultivation of astronomy and natural philosophy, disciplines highly regarded in the Catalan court, is found in the heart of the Gothic Quarter.

Palau del Lloctinent (the Viceroy’s Palace), located in this square, housed the Archive of the Crown of Aragon until 1994, a unique source for learning about the production and circulation of medical and scientific manuscripts in the city. A few metres away, in the Plaça de Sant Jaume square, opposite the City Hall (Casa de la Ciutat), is the Palau de la Generalitat palace, seat of the institution’s president since the 15th century.

“In 1923, during his visit to the city, Albert Einstein gave three lectures on relativity here, in what was then Barcelona’s Provincial Council headquarters. The article includes an image of the reception which was given in the City Hall, on the other side of the square,” the scientists explained. The Palau was also the headquarters of the Catalan Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

Another of the buildings in this sphere is the Museum of Barcelona’s History. It was built on the remains of the old Roman city and inside, the Cathedral’s clock, dating to 1576, can be seen, which told the city’s time for 300 years. In 1865, it was replaced by another which used the Suisse Albert Billeter’s mechanical system, who in his workshop in Gracia – then an independent municipality – made scientific instruments.

According to the study, this clock was destined to be Spain’s first electric clock, the inscription reading Primum cum semi electrico regulatore in Hispania, but it did not meet this expectation.

120 metres away, in Carrer del Paradís, is the Centre Excursionista de Catalunya (Hiking Centre of Catalonia), founded in 1876 under the name Associació Catalanista d’Excursions Científiques. Remains from the columns of the Temple of Augustus, restored in the 20th century, are preserved in its central courtyard. A plaque indicates the height of Monte Tàber, the highest point of the Roman Barcino which was the origin of the city. The boats of the old port were controlled from that point.

Continuing on to Plaça de l’Àngel square, formerly Plaça del Blat, there is one of the workshops where the Roget brothers, Joan and Pere, manufactured lenses for distance vision, “highly accurate refracting telescopes for the time,” claimed the experts.

Until 1391, the Gothic Quarter was Jewish. At this time, it was the centre of astronomic, philosophical and mathematical activity in the city. “Two sets of astronomical tables are attributed to Jewish scholars: the Taules de Barcelona (1361-1381), started by king Pere III’s astronomers and completed by the Hebrew Jacob ben Abi Abraham Isaac al-Corsuno; and the Taules of 1361, compiled by Jacob ben David Bonjorn,” the study points out.

Another distinguished member of Barcelona’s Jewish community was rabbi Abraham bar Hiyya (1070-1136), known as Savasorda, a scholar interested in astronomy and natural philosophy.

Route 2: from La Rambla to Barcelona’s oldest hospital

The upper stretch of La Rambla – the city’s most popular throughfare – is known as Rambla de los Estudios. This road is so-called because in the first half of the 16th century, king Alfonso the Magnanimous constructed the University of Barcelona’s first building there, founded in 1450, as Barcelona’s Estudi General (the term for university at the time).

Walking along La Rambla towards the sea, the Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts of Barcelona (RACAB), the city’s main scientific institution since its foundation in 1764, can be found at number 15.

“The article not only talks about the scientific activities and instruments in the RACAB, but also echoes the testimony of the British author George Orwell, who stood guard on the building’s terrace roof during the Civil War,” added the researchers.

The road continues to number 47 of Carme street, which leads to a complex of buildings, the oldest of which is Hospital of the Holy Cross (Hospital de la Santa Cruz), dating to the 15th century. Currently the restored gothic buildings of the old hospital, moved at the beginning of the 20th century to a new modern building designed by Lluís Domènech I Montaner (Hospital de Sant Pau), houses the National Library of Catalonia.

The same complex includes Casa de Convalescenica (Convalescence House), a late 17th century building which is the Institute for Catalan Studies’ headquarters, and the Royal Academy of Medicine, in a building erected in the 18th century as the Royal College of Surgery.

“Between 1843 and 1906 this was the headquarters of the University of Barcelona’s Medicine Faculty where Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) gave classes; one of the academy’s most noteworthy elements is his anatomical theatre,” they added.

Route 3: the city’s seafront

The Maritime Museum, near the end of La Rambla closest to the sea, is the route’s starting point. Once the Barcelona Royal Shipyard (Drassanes Reials), it is a magnificent example of civil Gothic architecture.

The museum houses the archive of Narcís Monutriol (1819-1885), pioneer of submarine navigation, and has a replica of Ictineu I, the first vessel conceived by Monturiol, in its outdoor patio.

The journey continues along the length of Paseo de Colón to Pla de Palau, where the city’s Lonja (Llotja de Mar) is found. Since 1758, La Llotja was the headquarters of Barcelona’s Trade Board, a centre essential for understanding technical and scientific education, promoter of technical schools, such as experimental physics and direct precursor of the industrial engineering faculties.

A small diversion must then be taken to Moll de Pescadors (fishers’ quay), where the old lighthouse stands. This building houses a clock which was one of the triangulation points used by the French astronomer and geographer Pierre Méchain for his metric measurements, between 1792 and 1794.

The route finishes in the Parque de la Ciudadel park, which took its name from the fortress that replaced the houses of La Ribera’s working quarter after the War of the Spanish Succession, and which was in turn destroyed for the 1888 Universal Exposition of Barcelona, which contributed to the redefinition of spaces for the production and consumption of knowledge in the city.

The Universal Exposition of 1929 gave rise to the urbanisation of Montjuic mountain, at the other end of the city following the cost. Montjuic castle, a modest fortification enlarged throughout the 18th century, was the observatory chosen by Méchain for his determining of the metre.

“A plaque at the foot of the castle’s main tower, on the southern extreme of the arch, commemorates this French academic’s visit to the city who, setting off from Dunkirk and passing through Paris, was to identify the first universal measurement unit. One of the city’s main roads, Avenida Meridiana, winds precisely through a stretch of this meridian.

Route 4: The Eixample and the history of the university in Barcelona

The most characteristic element of the urban expansion of Barcelona is the Eixample. In the Plaça de la Universitat square, near to the Plaça de Catalunya square, is the building that housed the University of Barcelona from 1872. The route continues across the Eixample to the new university campus in Avenida Diagonal, constructed in the 1960s, passing by the Industrial School, installed in an old factory dating to the beginning of the 20th century (Comte d’Urgell, 187).

The article ends with a brief reference to other places related to physics around the city, including Fabra Observatory and the National Museum of Science and Technology (mNACTEC), in Terrassa.

”The recent institutionalisation of physics must not be thought of as a lack of tradition. As our routes suggest, this discipline has played an important role in one way or another in the historical configuration of the city, and it has left visible traces in its urban history,” they concluded.

References:

Xavier Roqué y Antoni Roca Rosell. “Physical Science in Barcelona.” Physics in Perspective 15 (4): 470–498, noviembre de 2013. Doi:10.1007/s00016-013-0122-4.

Scientists from the University of Alicante discovered a total of 16 of these vessels with figurative images at the site of Libisosa (Albacete). Three of them are described in an article published by Archivo Español de Arqueología.

“They are three urns showing the three principal mechanisms of the final Iberian aristocracy’s heroic mythological past, symbolising their own self”, Héctor Uroz Rodríguez, main author of the study, told SINC.

For scientists, Iberian iconography in general is a type of book of images that they have to decipher.

In particular, these urns mainly consist of figurative decoration, whether human or animal, of the Iberian aristocracy for propaganda purposes. They try to construct a curriculum evoking a heroic past that did not exist. A mythology of their own lineage.

"The urns are as important alone as the context in which they appeared. This site represents that which could be called an 'Iberian Pompeii', because it boasts the best preserved final Iberian phase of Spain", he added.

Uninterrupted excavations began in 1996 at the site of Libisosa – which dates back to prehistoric times and in which medieval remains have been documented, continuing through the Roman and Iberian periods.

A city destroyed overnight

The period which the vessels belong to is the Final Iberian. “The site appears to be a tomb in life”, Uroz argued. ”A settlement suddenly destroyed overnight, creating a ‘Vesuvius effect’, but in this instance it was caused by the Roman army”.

It is a time of civil wars among Romans driven by a desire for power. Different factions of its aristocracy fought for individual control, something which would not become a reality until the reign of Augustus, the first Roman emperor.

According to the researcher, the Iberian Peninsula – which was already a province of Rome – served as the battlefield for the conflicts among Romans. Libisosa disappeared in the Sertorian War, a Roman general in conflict with Caecilius Metellus. There are no literary sources on the affiliation of this settlement with respect to the conflict.

“Libisosa is not only important for that which has been discovered up until now, but also for the potential that it possesses. We have taken part in 17 excavation campaigns, on 10% of the site. We have inventories of more than 145,000 pieces. I always say about the Iberian world that the best is to be discovered and possibly we will find that here one day", concluded Uroz.

The three remarkable urns

The “large earthenware jar of the knights” is the first of the three urns described in the article. It depicts a fight, one against another. “Normally in this type of fight, the best from each army would confront each other. It is an antiquated noble practice of the time. There is also a flautist present to liven the act. The winner is immaterial. It is a depiction of aristocratic values”, Uroz underlined.

A collective combat appears on the second vessel, a symbolic mythical battle. The propaganda consists in representing values, such as falling in battle. “This urn is very important because on the other side, we observe a very old language, where two deer with birds perching on them are facing the sacred tree or the tree of life”.

It is a language that in some way inherited a very old tradition. The extent to which that could be discovered without written documentation is a fact that surprised scientists.

The last urn depicts a heroic equestrian procession of a mounted monarch, probably with a funerary meaning. “It emphasises the image of the horseman, something that we know through many other mediums such as Iberian coins. The horse is an element closely linked with aristocracy”.

The study was based on a segmentation analysis that reflects the interactions between numerous dimensions of the social structure and identifies the privileged groups and the excluded from this type of consumption.

“We have observed that a relatively small group of people exists that makes many trips (20%), and that approximately a third of the population has an average participation in tourism. More than 40% are excluded from tourism consumption, whether due to economic reasons (28%) or other (14%),” Pablo Rodriguez, co-author of the study recently published by the journal Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural, told SINC.

If I had to define the profile of people who travelled less, older women without higher education

The expert stressed that there is no unique profile of people who enjoy tourism any less, since people do not travel for very different reasons.

“There are those who can not and there are those who do not want to travel. If I had to define the profile of people who travelled less, older women without higher education would stand out especially, but in inequality, different factors are influential depending on the stage of the life cycle, such as the level of studies and social class, living alone or having children, or having emigrated,” he argued.

Tourism by gender

The role of gender is especially complex in this investigation. Cases exist (middle-aged women who live alone) whereby they travel as much as, or more than men, while in other parts of the population, the differences between women are more acute than between men and women.

“For example, amongst women aged 18 to 29, the data indicates that 70% travel while only 30% of women aged 60 or over travel. There is more difference than between men and women within any age group, never exceeding 30 percentage points,” pointed out Rodríguez.

This investigation is based on data from a telephone survey carried out by the Institute for Advanced Studies (CSIC, Cordoba) within the framework of the collaboration agreement with the Autonomous Government of Andalusia.

“The field work was carried out in 2008 and it is very likely that these differences have been intensified further with the crisis. In the end, that is what the data on social inequality indicates, and tourism consumption is a reflection of that inequality,” stressed the expert.

The latest data from the Institute for Tourism Studies, provided by the FAMILITUR survey, indicates a sudden drop in the tourist activity of the Spanish.

80% of the population in the Northern European countries travels

Living alone favours travel when one is young in comparison with those who have children, while for older people being alone limits them

The objective of the investigation that they raised at the University of La Laguna (ULL) was to combat the idea that there are factors that are more influential or less influential in tourism and suggest that all analysed factors (sex, age, studies, economic activity, social class, household type and migratory past) influence in some way or another.

For example, they confirmed that living alone favours travel when one is young in comparison with those who have children, while for older people being alone limits them.

“Obviously, the most determining factor is the economic one,” pointed out the expert “since travelling costs money, but this is not ‘mathematical’, nor does it imply that you travel as much as you earn. At the same income level, there are people who either do or do not want to travel, or who travel more or less, and it is here that the level of studies seems to have a lot of influence in the interest or desire to travel”.

Lastly, the data from the latest Eurobarometer studies indicates that the least unequal societies also have a very generalized tourism consumption. “Here the Northern European countries are a key example, around 80% of the population travels, while in Spain the percentage is only around 50%,” concluded Rodríguez.

References:Pablo Rodríguez González y Manuel A. Santana Turégano. “Consumo turístico y desigualdad social en España” 12 (1): 29-51. 2014.

He has just finished the catalogue of archaeological sites and pieces found to date underwater off the Balearic coast. “The list is part of the National R&D&I Plan to have an inventory of cultural heritage submerged under the waters of all coastal regions,” Hermanns explains to SINC.

This collection has involved several years of archiving work, but also diving to check the state of shipwrecks and underwater archaeological sites.

“These diving checks were made with the Spanish Guardia Civil’s (Civil Guard’s) Special Group for Underwater Activities (GEAS in Spanish) of the Ibiza division, and certain locations – which are now being published – caught our attention. We also carried out other, more detailed projects, such as analysing a bronze candelabra from the Middle Ages that is unique to the region,” the archaeologist adds.

This piece, a description of which is published in the journal Archivo Español de Arqueología (Spanish Archaeology Archive), is unusual because there are not many similar models in the world. It is also unique to the Balearic region and dates back to the 10th century, an era in which marine activities on the Pityusic Islands (Ibiza and Formentera) are widely unknown.

“However, as it belongs to a private collection – a diver in Ibiza found it in the 1970s – it is quite a challenge gaining information about it,” Hermanns remarks.

From Ibiza to the Muslim colony of Fraxinetum

Archaeologists know the location of the underwater site where the candelabra was found, so a diving check was carried out. It yielded no results, however.

As the scientist explains, “the majority of the sea beds around the island, from 30 metres deep, are sandy and there is depth movement. You can be unlucky because the site could be covered on the day you are diving. We conducted several tests to find out the dynamics of the sea floor and the state the site was in.”

This candelabra is noteworthy because the seaways that went along Ibiza to get to Mallorca are unknown. Moreover, on the route where it was found, several shipwrecks from the same period were also found in southern France.

“There was a link between the Iberian peninsula and the south of France at least, with a Muslim colony named Fraxinetum, according to the Latin documents preserved. There is also a group of sunken vessels that attest to it; this must have been a supply system for the colony from the south of the peninsula,” the scientist claims.

Heermanns stresses that cases like these, in which objects currently held in private collections maintain well-documented account of the archaeological context in which it was found, are rare.

“There are few exceptions. This demonstrates the immense value that could be derived at institutional level, for example in diving federations, from raising awareness among recreational divers about underwater archaeology and the considerable cultural heritage to be found underwater,” he emphasises.

This candelabra is a unique piece, but coming from a location with no archaeological context, it is hard to imagine what use it had or any possible ritual implications.

“It belongs to the Caliphate era. We are uncertain of its symbology and precise use. For instance, it shows no traces of burning, among other reasons because it was restored differently from those found in investigations. However, it was worthwhile to make the study known to the scientific community because it might give clues on the importance of Ibiza in navigation routes,” he concludes.

References:

Marcus Heinrich Hermanns. "Evidence of early medieval navigation fron the waters surrounding Ibiza (Balearic Islands)". Archivo Español de Arqueología, 86: 251 - 260. 2013 doi:10.3989/aespa.086.013.014.

The middle classes are the backbone of the welfare state, the main consumers and also the principal taxpayers that ensure the viability of our system. In the midst of the current economic crisis, they are being hard hit by unemployment, job precariousness and the ensuing social decline.

And what about the expectations of a better future?

The principle underlying the behavior of the middle classes is the so-called “delayed gratification”. That is, strive today to have a better life tomorrow. However, because our prospects of having a standard of living at least like that of our parents are dim, this notion is being challenged and is having a devastating effect on society as a whole. Expectations to live or reproduce the lifestyle of the middle or upper-middle classes is one of the driving forces of our societies.

The results of your research have revealed that there is a new family conflict in Spain: the work-family issue. Did it not exist before?

It has always existed, but the problem has exacerbated in today’s society, in which citizens demand goods and services 24 hours a day, and men and women work very long hours in shifts or at night. Until recently, middle class families traditionally had resources to cushion this conflict: either by working in middle or senior level positions that allowed them to negotiate their terms of employment with their employers or to pay for help at home to meet the demands of the job.

Negotiating within companies has now become much more difficult because of this demand for around-the-clock services

What is happening now?

Negotiating within companies has now become much more difficult because of this demand for around-the-clock services. Also, paying for help at home has become substantially more costly. That is, middle class families face a work-family conflict that is exacerbated by the crisis and market conditions, and no longer have access to the means they traditionally used to get by.

Why did you choose families of working married couples with an intermediate to high level of education for your study?

Because this is a group that has not been widely studied and represents both the middle and upper-middle class in Spain, where many couples have an intermediate or higher education. It is a group that is undergoing a process of gradual degradation, which in some cases becomes users of social services as a consequence of the current economic crisis.

What were the main variables of your study?

The work-family conflict, the influence of support in caring for the family, and how the presence or absence of this support can buffer or intensify the feeling of being “burned out” in both men and women.

The work conflict interferes in men’s family life, while the family conflict creates more problems at work for women

What differences did you find in terms of gender?

The work conflict interferes in men’s family life, while the family conflict creates more problems at work for women. We are lacking work/family reconciliation policies and the sharing of roles and family responsibilities still carries little weight within Spanish families.

Is there any way to overcome these differences?

Social support for family care at all levels – from the micro level (household help) to the macro level (reconciliation policies) – is key: when the family has this support, stress and feelings of inefficiency lessen in both women and men. Moreover, when there is little time to take care of family obligations, women suffer more than men, suggesting that the traditional division of roles is still prevalent in family care.

How do these families manage their family obligations?

Family obligations are not optional, that is, parents cannot put their family’s needs on the back burner. Therefore, families as a group and its individual members are forced to meet the demands of a job that allows them to at least subsist economically, but which does not leave much room for personal and emotional well-being. Family members become exhausted in their efforts to meet the demands of both spheres of their lives, without satisfactory results. Spanish families deprived of their middle class status are forced to choose between work and family.

How do you expect this problem to evolve?

Because working hours are becoming increasingly long in our society, we need to design better reconciliation policies. If we fail to do so, the conflict will only increase in intensity. Since the number of middle class families in Spain has increased, as well as their social vulnerability, social work practitioners need to design better support programs that promote the reconciliation of work and family life for a group that traditionally has not made use of these social services.

Do these families pose a current challenge for social work in Spain?

In the current economic crisis, many middle class families find themselves caught up in a context of social exclusion, where not even their economic survival is guaranteed. The impacts of the crisis are heightened as those accustomed to the comfort social inclusion provides are further fragmented due to the lack of such comfort. It is not only a question of reproducing a lifestyle that has been inherited or corresponds to what we understand as the “middle class”. In this work-family debate, it is a question of not losing this lifestyle completely. Indeed, yes, these families represent a new challenge for social work in our country.

References:

Sagrario Segado Sánchez-Cabezudo, Antonio López Peláez. “Social work with middle-class Spanish families: The challenge of the work-family conflict”, International Journal of Social Welfare, 2014, nº 23, pp. 100-111. DOI: 10.1111/ijsw.12012.

Other research on the representations that appear in Roman mosaics analyzed clothing as an iconographic element that was fundamental in identifying the characters and determining their status, but this new focus centers on the opposite theme: the absence of any type of clothing. “The construction of the bodies is neither natural nor casual, as we are sometimes led to believe, but rather it is the result of relationships based on power; they were well established in society and were promoted by those who wielded that power”, explains UC3M Ancient History professor, Luz Neira.

The analysis of the representations of nudes goes beyond the study of the work of art, investigating the very significant ideological implications for the reconstruction of the history of the elite during the Roman Empire, and the level of its influence on posterity. This is what is being examined in the essays, written by approximately ten specialists, which are gathered in the recently published book “Desnudo y cultura: la construcción del cuerpo en los mosaicos romanos” (The Nude and Culture: the construction of the body in Roman Mosaics), coordinated and edited by Professor Luz Neira.

“Judging from the nude images in the mosaics, what is generally exalted is the beauty, the carnality and the eroticism of the female figure, through a subtle combination of different representations of the bust and abdomen, or the back and buttocks, which reflect care for the body and its availability; in contrast, the nudes depicting male bodies, equally complete but muscular, show determination, strength and power,” states the researcher..

The female nude celebrates the beauty, carnality and eroticism, while the male body reflects determination, strength and power

More female than male nudes

The deeply asymmetric treatment of male and female bodies is evident and, therefore, constitutes a reflection of relationships based on power, according to the researchers. “The female figures predominate in the mosaic scenes, although some male representations have also been documented,” the professor comments. In this case, the main male figures tend to be gods, heroes and mythological beings, or else wrestlers and athletes.

Contrary to what one might expect, these images were not limited to the most private areas of the homes. In fact, they have been documented in different receiving rooms of dwellings and in bathing areas, both public and private, where the impact of these images, sometimes covered by water, must have been very evocative, the researchers comment. One very revealing example is a representation of Ariadne or the Nereid that shows a nude female figure lying on a marine animal, with one arm behind her head in a position and with a gesture that has been interpreted as “availability to the other.”

“The nudes chosen to decorate the flooring of domestic spaces are the result of the choices made by the most privileged members of the elite and they reflect their mentality, which leads us to consider that looking at them might awaken a series of feelings, reactions and attitudes,” notes Luz Neira.

“As is pointed out in the book, the reflected image is a tool for evocation, a symbol of everything that we see without really seeing and, at the same time, what we would like to see but do not see. Because the reflected image is, excuse the repetition, a reflection of the brain, the subconscious, the language of emotions,” she concludes.

Reference:

Luz Neira. Desnudo y Cultura: "La construcción del cuerpo en los mosaicos romanos" (coordinación y edición). Creaciones Vincent Gabrielle (CVG), Madrid, 2013.

Their study, recently published in the journal ‘Comunicar’, includes 595 advertisements seen over the Christmas campaigns, between October and January, when most toy adverts go out, for the years 2009, 2010 and 2011.

Although many of the advertisements have messages that apply to both sexes, it was more frequent to see very separate values

As Esther Martínez, researcher at the Rey Juan Carlos University and one of the authors of the study, in which the San Antonio de Murcia Catholic University also took part, tells SINC, “They have been recorded from channels for general viewing and some with specific content for children and young people”.

The advertising came from eight channels: TVE1, TVE2, Telecinco, Antena 3, Cuatro, la Sexta, Boing and Disney Channel.

The analysis of the adverts shows that, although many of them have messages that apply to both sexes, such as fun, education, solidarity and individualism, it was more frequent to see very separate values.

Sexist messages

In most of the publicity, cars and action heroes were associated with males, together with competitive values, individualism, power and strength. However, the female role was linked to beauty and motherhood as seen in adverts for dolls and accessories.

The content of the videos was analysed using a test designed by the writers. ”The file contains the main variables: type of products, gender shown, messages, values, voiceover, length, actions and interaction between the characters.

The method was based on previous work, some codes of practice for broadcasting, such as the Self-regulatory code for Advertising Toys to Children and the Self-regulatory Code for Television Content and Children, and the General Laws on Audiovisual Communication and Publicity.

“These rules state that sexism must be avoided and one gender must not be valued above another, or show a toy linked to one in particular,” states Martínez.

In the adverts studied, boys were offered more toys encouraging spatial skills, while girls were shown dolls and educational games.

The researcher also said that there was evident gender segregation in the voiceovers. “Female voices predominated in adverts where girls appear, and male voices where only boys appear and also when both genders are shown”.

In addition, any adult figures in adverts “only appear for board games and electronic toys, representing the father's role. However, a father is rarely shown playing action games”.

Cars and action heroes were associated with males, the female role was linked to beauty and motherhood

Pink crossbows

The authors conclude that, despite legal provisions, there are still toys that are very different for girls and boys.

However, they say that “a change is under way”. Martínez said that in the advert for a well-known make of girls' dolls, some boys now appear in the background; and there is a brand of toy weapons selling a pink crossbow and bow for girls.

Goldiebox, a United States company, has designed a line of toys for girls who are 'future engineers'. On its web page, the company states that in a world where male scientists outnumber females, and girls lose interest in the subject at 8 years old, Goldiebox aims to change the equation.

In spite of these examples, Martínez admits that there are still too few that integrate both sexes. The researcher reminds us that advertising in a mirror of society and popular culture. "Just because a boy is seen in a doll advert will not make the boys watching identify with it".

Bibliographic reference:

Esther Martínez, M. Ángel Nicolás y Álvaro Salas. “La representación de género en las campañas de publicidad de juguetes en Navidades (2009-12)”. Comunicar, 1 de noviembre de 2013.

“It is a very simple experiment using the methodology of experimental economics. The objective was to investigate why people are honest. In economic theory, the standard view – predominant until a few decades ago – was that people are only motivated by their own material gain. That is to say, we are selfish in this respect: we will always tell the truth if it is to our material advantage, and we will lie if this is not the case,” Raúl López, researcher at the UAM and co-author of the work, tells SINC.

The researchers point out that this prediction seems to have certain limitations because there is ample evidence that people tell the truth even if there is a material cost involved. This gives rise to different hypotheses.

“We have studied the relevance of one of these explanations to see what percentage of support it receives. The hypothesis is that people are honest because they have internalized this quality, and the contrary makes them feel a negative emotion like guilt or shame, which is known as pure lie aversion,” López explains.

The other motivations hypothesized are altruism, conformity with what we think the other person expects us to say, or obligation or desire not to disappoint the income expectations of the other person.

Experiment with colours and money

258 people participated in the experiment, dividing up the roles of messenger and recipient. The messenger sat in front of a computer screen and was shown what the experts called a random signal, in this case, a green or blue circle which appeared indistinctly. Once the messenger had observed the colour, he had to send a message to the recipient stating that “the blue circle appeared” or “the green circle appeared”, in other words, he could lie or tell the truth. The recipient was at all times unaware of the colour, he only received the message.

Moreover, they were given certain monetary payments depending on whether the decision was to lie or to tell the truth. “The recipient always received 10 euros, whatever happened. The messenger received 15 euros if he sent the green message and 14 euros if he sent the blue.

Thus he faced the dilemma of whether to lie or not to earn more money. To clarify the motivation and see whether conformism was a factor – in that people tell the truth because they think that it is what they are expected to say - they repeated the experiment, first with a high probability of green, and then of blue.

Given that lying only yields monetary benefits when the signal is blue, the recipient was more likely to expect a lie when the probability of blue was high. Anticipating this, the conformist messenger would tend to lie more in the latter case.

“We observed that conformism did not affect the decision and that 40% of people always told the truth. This fact supports the hypothesis that these people were adverse to lying. It appears to be a very strong evidence,” the co-author of the study argues.

Only studies correlate with honesty

Neither religion, nor gender, nor political preference was related to being honest. According to the experts, who introduced these variables in the study, there is a clear correlation between behaviour, honesty and type of studies. “We observed that economists and businesspeople lie more,” López notes.

The authors also analyzed the expectations of people who always tell the truth and liars. “We also did this providing financial incentives. We saw that honest people believe that others are honest. Whereas dishonest people believe that others will also lie,” she concludes.

References:

Raúl López-Pérez y Eli Spiegelman. “Why do People Tell the Truth? Experimental Evidence for Pure Lie aversion*” Experimental Economics 16, (3): 233-247 septiembre de 2013.

“Our initial hypothesis was that the more developed social protection policies and the labour market were – as is the case in Scandinavian countries – the lower associated gender inequality would be,” Javier Campos, lead author of the work, tells SINC.

The scientists also expected the inequality to be more marked in lower socio-occupational classes with fewer socioeconomic resources, for example, among manual workers.

However, the conclusions, published in the ‘International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health’, are completely the opposite. In Scandinavia, executive or professional women showed the highest prevalence in the three types of psychosocial risk.

41.0% of these women felt exposed to high work demands with very little control over them. 34.7% believed they were subjected to high demands without the support of their colleagues. 26.5% thought they invested considerable emotional effort in their job commitment, but received insufficient reward: a low salary or few prospects for progress.

In contrast, executive or professional men from Anglo-Saxon countries showed the lowest prevalence of exposure to high demand-low control (13.5%), high demand-low control- low social support (11.2%) and high effort-low reward (16.9%).

To conduct the study, the researchers used data from the fourth European Survey on Working Conditions (2005), which included 28 European countries (including Spain) and a total sample of 12,402 women and 15,063 men.

The greatest gender inequality in the exposure to psychosocial risks is also observed in Scandinavian countries.

The third result to highlight is that in Scandinavian countries, this gender inequality is intensified among social classes with more resources. In the highest socioeconomic classes (category I) it is almost double that of category II, and it disappears in category III (the lowest).

Challenges for the future

“The fact that there is a higher proportion of women exposed to psychosocial risks at work can be explained, in part, by the time spent caring for children or dependants at home, a task that falls principally on women’s shoulders, despite certain improvements with regard to the equal distribution of household tasks,” Campos explains.

Higher proportion of women exposed to psychosocial risks at work can be explained, in part, by the time spent caring for children or dependants at home

For the expert, the masculinisation and feminisation of the economic sectors of activity of companies – for example, industry and construction are typically masculine, whereas services are typically feminine – could clear up part of the inequality observed.

Different perceptions of those surveyed must also be taken into account when evaluating the results. “Perhaps in Scandinavian countries, with a long tradition of equal opportunities educational policies, women’s perception is more sensitive than that in southern European countries,” he comments.

The researchers find another possible explanation in the impact of social protection policies to reduce gender inequality, which is different in the different socio-occupational classes.

“A challenge for future research is to examine how the exposure to psychosocial risks at work could affect the physical and mental health of women and men in different countries, taking into account different socio-occupational classes,” Campos concludes.

References:

Campos-Serna J, Ronda-Perez E, Moen BE, Artazcoz L, Benavides FG. “Welfare state regimes and gender inequalities in the exposure to work-related psychosocial hazards”. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. 2013 Jul-Sep;19(3):179-95.

“Our study has shown that unconventional forms of advertising are much more recalled than spots, both in terms of spontaneous recall – the viewer recalls the brands without help – and assisted recall – the brands are recalled using a preliminary list –,” Pedro Reinares Lara, of the Marketing and Market Research area of Rey Juan Carlos University and co-author of the work, told SINC.

In terms of spontaneous recall, the new television advertising formats are recalled almost six times better, and in terms of assisted recall, almost twice as well. For a spot to generate the same recall as five seconds of a new form of advertising, with assistance, the television advert would have to last 60 seconds.

In terms of spontaneous recall – the viewer recalls the brands without help –, the new television advertising formats are recalled almost six times better

The researchers conducted an empirical experiment in a real environment. Their methodology combined Kantar Media’s audience measurement data – a company which measures the audiences of more than thirty countries and has a representative sample of 10,400 individuals in Spain – with data from an ad hoc telephone survey of a total of 2,000 people between 16 and 65 years.

“A significant effort has been made to include in the data collection variables relevant to the process of media planning, and others related to the brand and the audience profile. The objective was to create a complex and statistically representative database,” the researcher explains.

A booming advertising format

The new forms of advertising emerged because of the declining effectiveness of television advertising based on spots, and they always show some degree of integration into the television programmes. This integration capacity is exactly what for some authors makes them “the future of television advertising”.

According to estimates, they could represent between 10% and 14% of the turnover of television operators with business models based on advertising.

“At an international level the new forms of advertising are widespread in all television channels whose main source of income is advertising,” the authors note. The results of this study reinforce the potential of television as an effective advertising medium.

In the Spanish market, despite the crisis and the growth of the Internet as an advertising medium, television continues to be the top medium in terms of volume of investment (1,815.3 million Euros during 2012).

References:

“Do new forms of television advertising occasion better recall than traditional advertising spots?” International Journal of Advertising, 32 (2013)

They analysed the differences between these two groups in terms of their sexual behaviour and their attitudes towards HIV.

As Alexandra Morales, researcher at UMH and co-author of the study, tells SINC, “Adolescents who combined sex and alcohol engaged more in vaginal, oral and anal sex than those who did not. Similarly, having had sex under the influence of alcohol was linked to a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies.”

According to their results, 58.9% of teenagers who have sexual relations under the effects of alcohol do not consistently use condoms when they have sex, compared to 35.9% in those who do not mix sex and alcohol.

From the total sample (1,216 adolescents), the 297 who stated that they had had sex in the last six months were selected and grouped on the basis of whether they had maintained sexual relations under the effects of alcohol or not.

Of these, 117 claimed to have engaged in sexual practices under the influence of alcohol in the last six months.

“The size of the final sample is limited due to the low proportion of adolescents who claimed to have engaged in sexual activities between the ages of 14 and 18. Despite this, the sample is geographically dispersed, coming from four different regions of Spain,” the researcher notes.

Girls may be more aware, but the risks are the same

Gender differences were observed mostly in teenagers who do not have sex under the effects of alcohol. In overall terms, girls proved more aware of the HIV epidemic, and their attitudes towards condoms when there are obstacles to its use were more positive than those of boys.

However, when engaging in sex under the influence of alcohol, the risk variables are the same. “The pattern of sexual behaviour and the variables related to the risk were similar among boys and girls who have sex under the effects of alcohol,” Morales affirms.

The researchers consider that, bearing in mind these results, it is advisable that measures directed at promoting sexual health should be discussed in light of the typical profile of the teenager who mixes sex and alcohol.

One of the strategies they propose to reduce the sexual risk in this group is to encourage condom use as the main method of protection against STIs and unwanted pregnancies, reducing or eliminating, if possible, the psychological, social and cultural barriers that stand in the way of using them.

“We must investigate the reasons for which adolescents mix sex and alcohol in order to reduce sexual risk in this age range,” she concludes.

References:

José P. Espada, Alexandra Morales, Mireia Orgilés, José A. Piqueras, José L. Carballo. “Sexual behaviour under the influence of alcohol among Spanish adolescents” Adicciones 25: 55-62, 2013.

“In this article we have gone into detail with a broad sample on an issue that receives little attention in tourist environments: sexual harassment and sex against one’s will. Research was conducted on English and German tourists because they are the most frequent visitors to southern Europe and it is easier to obtain results,” Amador Calafat, the Irefrea researcher leading the study, informs SINC.

8.6% of people suffered sexual harassment during their holidays

Despite the known increase in substance use and risky sexual behaviours among young people during holiday periods, issues of sexual harassment and sex against one’s will have not received adequate attention, according to the researchers.

The results of the study show that 8.6% of people suffered sexual harassment during their holidays and 1.5% suffered sex against their will. “2.4 times as many women as heterosexual men claimed to have suffered from sexual harassment. However, gay and bisexual men showed similar levels to women and high levels of sex against their will,” the expert notes.

Predictor variables for risk

The researchers applied different variables to predict the risk of falling victim to one of the two behaviours studied. “With regard to sexual harassment, those who claimed to have suffered these practices the most were tourists who were visiting Mallorca and Crete, young, British, gay or bisexual, frequent drinkers or attracted to bars where people get drunk, or cocaine consumers,” Calafat highlights.

“We’re not talking about casual sex, but rather issues that show a correlation, so we must continue researching,” the scientist explains.

The Spanish group Irefrea has led various European projects and participated in others on the subjects of violence, driving, sexual behaviour, drunkenness, drug use, differences between countries, management of venues that have an influence on drunkenness and violence, etc., and has prepared Health and Safety European Standards for nightlife venues.

“The first preventive measure is to be aware that these problems exist, since we tend to always think positively about holidays. There are measures that depend on tourist destinations, which are often promoted as places with a high level of sexual permissiveness and advertise cheap alcohol. The venues themselves can also avoid these situations by adopting good management in accordance with already established standards,” Calafat explains.

The article is part of a long series of publications on nightlife issues that Irefrea has been publishing in recent years.

References:

Amador Calafat, Karen Hughes, Nicole Blay, Mark A. Bellis, Fernando Mendes, Montse Juan, Philip Lazarov, Barbara Cibin, et al. “Sexual Harassment among Young Tourists Visiting Mediterranean Resorts” Archives of Sexual Behavior 42: 603-613, mayo de 2013. DOI 10.1007/s10508-012-9979-6

The origin and function of the construction have been the subject of much debate. Archaeologists from the University of Pablo de Olavide (Seville, Spain) have conducted a detailed analysis of the structure and now suggest that it may originally not have been used for burials but for worshipping the God Mithras. Mithraism was an unofficial religion that was widespread throughout the Roman Empire in the early centuries of our era.

Researchers have identified four stages in which the building was renovated, giving it different uses.

“In some stages, it was used for burial purposes, but its shape and an archaeoastronomical analysis suggest that it was originally designed and built to contain a Mithraeum [temple to Mithras],” as explained to SINC by Inmaculada Carrasco, one of the authors of the study.

Carrasco and her colleague Alejandro Jiménez focus their studies on a window in the main chamber built during the first stage. Earlier studies had already suggested that the purpose of the window was not to provide light, but that rather it may have served a symbolic and spiritual purpose.

The Sun, the Moon and the stars

“From our analysis of the window, we have deduced that it was positioned so that the rays of the sun reached the centre of the chamber during the equinoxes, in the spring and autumn, three hours after sunrise” explains Carrasco.

The authors believe that at that moment a statue of the tauroctony, the statue of Mithras slaying the bull (which has been lost), would have been illuminated.

In addition, during the winter and summer solstice, the sun would light up the north and south walls respectively.

Moreover, the position of the heavenly bodies at that time in the 2nd century reinforces the theory that the building was constructed for Mithraic worship, a religion that gave considerable importance to the constellations.

As the sun shines through the window during the spring equinox, Taurus rises to the East and Scorpio hides to the West. The opposite occurred during the autumn equinox.

Taurus and Scorpio were of special significance to the Mithraics. The main image of the cult is that of the God Mithras slaying a bull, and in the majority of these images there is also a scorpion stinging the animal’s testicles.

Other constellations such as Aquarius, Orion or Leo, which were also of significance in this religion, appear in the path of the sun in the equinoxes and solstices at that time.

Moreover, according to the authors, the Moon, although having a secondary role, may have lit up the face of Mithras with a full moon on nights near to the equinoxes.

Four stages of renovation

Apart from the window, the architecture of the original building has similarities to other Mithraic constructions.

Carrasco explained that it is “an underground structure, with a room divided into three chambers, with a shrine or altar illuminated by the window at the head. The presence of a fountain is also highly significant as these are commonly found in the Mithraeums”.

According to the authors, after its period as a Mithraic temple, the building was renovated three times, giving it new functions more in line with the functions of a necropolis. A burial chamber was built and at a later date, the roof was removed, leaving open courtyards. Lastly, it was filled with rubble and used as an area for burials.

However, there are some objections to the theory that it was a Mithraic temple as it is in a necropolis, an uncommon site for buildings used for this cult which were more often found in domestic, urban or rural environments.

“A similar case is that of Sutri (Italy) where the Mithraeum is on the outskirts of the town. The structure in Carmona is in a multi-purpose space, next to the Via Augusta which connected Cadiz to Rome, close to the amphitheatre and the circus, and consequently its position should not be considered an objection,” says Jiménez.

References:

A. Jiménez, I. Carrasco. “The tomb of the Elephant at the Roman Necropolis of carmona. A necessary review through the Building Archaeology and Archaeostromy”Archivo español de arqueología. DOI: 10.3989/aespa.085.012.007

A mathematical model developed by a team from the Autonomous University of Madrid (UAM) and the CEU-San Pablo University, both from Spain, seems to confirm the lower estimate, in addition to a standstill and even a slight drop in the number of people on Earth by the mid-21st century.

The population prospects between 1950 and 2100 provided by the UN were used to conduct the study, published in the journal ‘Simulation’. Mathematical equations which are used in scientific fields, such as condensed matter physics, were then applied to this data.

“This is a model that describes the evolution of a two-level system in which there is a probability of passing from one level to another,” as explained to SINC by Félix F. Muñoz, UAM researcher and co-author of the project.

The team considered the Earth as a closed and finite system where the migration of people within the system has no impact and where the fundamental principle of the conservation of mass –biomass in this case– and energy is fulfilled.

“Within this general principle, the variables that limit the upper and lower zone of the system’s two levels are the birth and mortality rates,” Muñoz pointed out and recalled the change that occurred in the ratio between the two variables throughout the last century.

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“We started with a general situation where both the birth rate and mortality rate were high, with slow growth favouring the former,” he added, “but the mortality rate fell sharply in the second half of the 20th century as a result of advances in healthcare and increased life expectancy and it seemed that the population would grow a lot. However, the past three decades have also seen a steep drop-off in the number of children being born worldwide.”

The model’s S-shaped sigmoid curve reflects this situation with an inflection point in the mid-1980s when the speed at which the population is growing starts to slow down until it stabilises around 2050.

The data also reflect the downward trend in the UN’s series of prospects. “Overpopulation was a spectre in the 1960s and 70s but historically the UN’s low fertility variant forecasts have been fulfilled,” Muñoz highlighted.

As recently as 1992 it was predicted that there would be 7.17 billion people on Earth by 2010 instead of the actual 6.8 billion. In fact, the fertility rate has fallen by more than 40% since 1950.

“This work is another aspect to be taken into consideration in the debate, although we do not deal with the significant economic, demographic and political consequences that the stabilisation and ageing of the world population could entail,” the researcher concluded.

References:

Julio A Gonzalo, Félix-Fernando Muñoz, David J Santos. “Using a rate equations approach to model World population trends”. Simulation: Transactions of the Society for Modeling and Simulation International 89: 192-198, February 2013

The age of the El Sidrón remains could prove to be an important piece of information in the discussion about when the transition from Neanderthal to Homo sapiens took place in Europe. “Some previous datings that stated the remains were only 10,000 years old are inconsistent and cannot be considered credible. They would be highly disputed in the discussion about when Homo neanderthalensis became extinct,” as explained to SINC by Marco de la Rasilla, co-ordinator of the research team.

In order to adjust the age of these Neanderthals, De La Rasilla and his team compared previous results from the French Climate and Environmental Sciences Laboratory (LSCE, its acronym in French), with new data obtained by the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU). The datings provided by both laboratories have enabled them to confirm that the Neanderthals from the Asturian cave lived some 49,000 years ago.

The datings provided by both laboratories have enabled them to confirm that the Neanderthals from the Asturian cave lived some 49,000 years ago

“The previous measurement of 10,000 years for this episode was due to a contamination issue,” De La Rasilla explained. Carbon-14 is the most widely-used dating method in archaeology and it measures the age of the carbon found in an object. If the sample becomes contaminated with modern carbon or other substances then the object may appear younger than it actually is.

The new carbon-14 dating in Oxford’s ORAU laboratory was preceded by a highly sophisticated ultrafiltration treatment to reduce contamination as much as possible. The results revealed that the remains are between 45,200 and 51,600 years old.

The weighted average between this data and the data obtained previously by the French laboratory, where the sample underwent a different pre-treatment with ninhydrin to remove contaminants, places the Neanderthal inhabitants of El Sidrón 49,000 years ago. “The fact that two separate laboratories using different treatments came up with similar figures makes this date even more reliable” De La Rasilla concluded.

References:

R. E. Wood, T. F. G. Higham, T. de Torres, N. Tisnerat-Laborde, H. Valladas, J. E. Ortiz, C. Lalueza-Fox, S. Sánchez-Moral, J. C. Cañaveras, A. Rosas, D. Santamaría, M. De La Rasilla. 2013. “A new date for the Neanderthals from El Sidrón cave (Asturias, northern Spain)”. Archaeometry, 55, 1, pp.148-158. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00671.x

T. de Torres, J. E. Ortiz, R. Grün, S. Eggins, H. Valladas, N. Mercier, N. Tisnérat-Laborde, R. Julià, V. Soler, E. Martínez, S. Sánchez-Moral, J. C. Cañaveras, J. Lario, E. Badal, A. Rosas, D. Santamaría, M. de la Rasilla, J. Fortea. 2010. “Dating of the hominid (Homo Neanderthalensis) remains accumulation from El Sidrón cave (Borines, Asturias, North Spain): an example of multi-methodological approach to the dating of Upper Pleistocene sites”. Archaeometry, 52, 4, pp. 680-705. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2009.00671.x

The scientists have been researching Mayan wall paintings in Mexico and Guatemala since 2006. Published in the ‘Journal of Archaeological Science’, this project came about after contact on various occasions with other researchers in the area, namely the National University of Mexico, who wanted to know the composition and function of the cosmetics found in pots.

“The conclusion that we have reached, given the structure of the pigments found, is that they are remains of cosmetics that were used in rituals following burial. At that time it was common to periodically practice a kind of remembrance worship of the deceased high nobility,” as explained to SINC by María Teresa Domenech Carbo, director of the University Institute of Heritage Restoration of the Polytechnic University of Valencia and lead author of the study.

In these rituals the high priest of the city would conduct a ceremony in the dwelling of the most noble of citizens (nobility, princes and kings). The reason for this is that unlike today where graves are located in special places, in those days the deceased were buried underneath the floor of their homes.

“The priest would go to the home and would pay homage to the deceased with the family present. Cosmetics were used by the priest carrying out the ceremony and formed a part of the ritual. The remains of carbonaceous particles found lead to the belief that aromatic material were burnt, with the priest painting parts of the body with those pigments. In addition, it is probable that the body was removed and ‘redecorated’ too,” explains Domenech.

Furthermore, the researchers outline that although we could think that these materials in the urns belonged to the deceased in life and were put in the grave to accompany their owner into the ‘new life’, as in the case of the Egyptians, the fact that the make-up did not contain any agglutinative substance (an organic vehicle that allows make-up to stick to the face or body) leads us to believe that they had more of a symbolic nature.

“It is not very frequent to find cosmetic products in archaeological excavations in America"

“It is not very frequent to find cosmetic products in archaeological excavations in America. These are the first on this continent to be analysed in a serious and systematic way,” ensures the researcher. In Europe and Africa, mainly in countries such as Italy and Egypt, the analysis of cosmetic products is more common.

Teotihuacan is one of the most important and most visited archaeological sites in Mexico thanks to its close location to Mexico City and its spectacular great Mayan pyramid.

Flowing trade in Prehispanic Mexico

As well as providing more knowledge on the funerary rituals of this millennium-old culture, the cosmetic remains found help us to identify the social relevance of the buried individuals and they prove the existence of fluid commerce between the different areas of Mexico.

The scientists found material coming from the surroundings of Teotihuacan, such as pulverised volcanic rock pigments and other clay-like types typical of the area’s geology.

Nonetheless, some remains, such as those mica and jarosite particles found, are not native to the surroundings and were probably imported from different parts of Mexico. This, in turn, confirms the existence of trade. “No surprise since this city dominated the entire Mesoamerican region and it has been shown that fluid trade existed in certain southern areas,” points out the researcher.

In addition, the appearance of these remains with the body of the deceased indicates their social status. “Unless the person was very important to this civilisation they were not buried with cosmetic products. The deceased would have had to hold an important position in society, such as that of a king, a prince or a high noble,” ensures the expert.

Following this study, the research team analysed another collection of cosmetic material in the region of Guatemala. The results are currently awaiting publication.

References:

María Teresa Doménech-Carbó, María Luisa Vázquez de Agredos-Pascual, Laura Osete-Cortina, Antonio Doménech-Carbó , Núria Guasch-Ferré , Linda R. Manzanilla , Cristina Vidal-Lorenzo. “Characterization of prehispanic cosmetics found in a burial of the ancient city of Teotihuacan (Mexico)” Journal of Archaeological Science 39: 1043 – 1062, 2012.